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PSYC105 > Chapter 8: Thinking, Reasoning & Language > Flashcards

Chapter 8: Thinking, Reasoning & Language Flashcards

1
Q

Thinking

A

any mental activity or processing of information

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2
Q

thinking includes

A

learning, remembering, previewing, communicating, believing and deciding

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3
Q

thinking =

A

cognitiion

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4
Q

We are all ________ ______

A

cognitive misers

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5
Q

what does a cognitive miser mean

A

invests as little energy as possible unless it’s necessary to do more

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6
Q

when can cognitive economy get us in trouble?

A

when it leads us to oversimplify

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7
Q

what do our minds use to increase our thinking efficency?

A

heuristics (mental short cuts)

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8
Q

what does cognitive economy allow us to do

A

simplify what we attend to and keep the information we need for decisions making manageable minimum

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9
Q

Cognitive economy was refered to by Gigerenzer and Goldstein as

A

fast and frugal thinking

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10
Q

are heuristics effective?

A

yes
- a study by Samuel gosling revealed untrained observers make surprising accurate judgements

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11
Q

can you detect people personality from facebook profiles?

A

yes, some studys have found this

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12
Q

can you tell a persons personality from there online gamers’ avartars and player names

A

people are less likely to be able to
- suggests that gamer profiles are who they want to be perceived as vs. who they actually are

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13
Q

Nalini Ambady and Robert Rosenthal

A

showed participants 30-second silent clips and asked to evaluate them on instructors nonverbal behaviours
participants ratings where correlated significantly with the teachers end of course evaluations by students

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14
Q

representativeness heuristics

A

involves judging the probability of an event based on how prevalent the event has been in the past

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15
Q

representativeness heuristics example

A

meeting someone shy, awkward, and a tournament chess player, and assuming they are more likely to be a mathematics major than a psychology major

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16
Q

base rate =

A

how common a behaviour or characteristics is in general

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17
Q

availability heuristics

A

estimate the occurrence based on how easy it come to our minds or how “available” it is in our memories

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18
Q

availability heuristics example

A

which has more calories beer or peanuts?
most people answer beer because the idea that beer is high in calories is prevalent in our society when in reality peanuts actually have more calories

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19
Q

Hindsight Bias is also known as

A

the “ I knew it all along effect”

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20
Q

Hindsight Bias

A

our tendency to overestimate how accurately we could have predicted something happening once we know the outcome

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21
Q

Hindsight bias example

A

“Monday Morning Quarterbacking”
- when commentators and spectators of a football game played sunday evening point out the fact that a different strategy would have worked better

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21
Q

conformation bias

A

tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypotheses or beliefs and deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that does

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22
Q

top down processing

A

brain only processes information that it recieves, and constructs meaning from it slowly and surely by building up understanding from expereice

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23
Q

applications of top down processing

A

sensation
chunking

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24
Q

concepts

A

knowledge and ideas about objects, actions, and characteristics that share core properties

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25
Q

Shemas

A

concepts we’ve sorted in memory about how certain actions, objects, and ideas relate to each other
- allow us to know roughly what to expect in a given situation

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26
Q

lingustic determinism

A
  • provides an extreme verson of top down processing in which no ideas can be generated without lingustic knowledge
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27
Q

can though occur without language

A

yes

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28
Q

lingustice relativity

A
  • maintain and shape our thought processes
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29
Q

linguistic relativity is also called

A

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

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30
Q

color categorization

A

regardless of how many colors the language has, most people around the world precieve colors as dividing them into roughly the same color categories (Correlation)

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31
Q

what is higher order cognition?

A

making decions and problem solving

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32
Q

higher order thinking requires

A

taking ALL the basic aspects of cognitions, such as perception, knowledge, memory, language, and reasoning, and integrate them to generate a plan of action

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33
Q

decision making

A

the process of selecting among a set of alternatives

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34
Q

system 1 thinking

A

rapid; intuitive
- relies of heustrinsics

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35
Q

system 2 thinking

A

slow; analytical

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36
Q

additional factors that influence our decsion making and are known by marketing researchers, advertising exectives, and political pollsters are known as

A

framing

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37
Q

framing

A

how we formulate the question about what we need to decide

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38
Q

neuroeconomics

A

how the brain works while making financial decisions
- uses an fMRI to identify areas of the brain that have become active during this decision making

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39
Q

decision making activates areas of the brain involved in ___________ and _________

A

processign reward
attending carefully to the relative merits of different opinions

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40
Q

neuroeconimics has the potential to help us understand

A

why decision making goes wrong some of the time in some people
EXAMPLE: could be used to diagnose psychological disorders

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41
Q

problem solving

A

generating a cognitive strategy to accomplish a goal

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42
Q

algorithm

A

step-by-step learned procedure used to solve a problem

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43
Q

algorithms are used got

A

problems that depend on the basic steps for arriving at a solution

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44
Q

algorithms example

A

recipes

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45
Q

how can we problem solve

A

1.algorithms
2.breaking down problem into subproblems so they are easier to solve
3. reasoning from related examples
4. analogies

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46
Q

reasoning from related example

A

oil is often substituted for butter in baking therefore it might work form an omelette too

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47
Q

analogies

A

solve problems with similar structure

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48
Q

what are the obstacles to problem solving

A
  1. salience of surface similarities
  2. mental sets
  3. functional fixedness
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49
Q

mental set

A

phenomenon of being stuck in a specific problem solving strategy, inhibiting our ability to generate alternatives

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50
Q

functional fixedness

A

difficultly conceptualizing that an object typically used for one purpose can be used for another

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51
Q

solution to functional fixedness

A

shift the problem to be smaller

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52
Q

1980s analogy for how the mind works

A

compaired the mind to a computer

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53
Q

Language

A

largely arbitrary system of communication that combines symbols in rule based ways to create meaning

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54
Q

what is one hallmark of language

A

needs to be arbitary; its sounds, words, and sentences bear no clear relation to their meaning

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55
Q

what is the most crucial function of language

A

transmission of information

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56
Q

language also has key ______ and _______ functions

A

social
emotional

57
Q

why do we take language for granted

A

it is a highly practiced and an automatic (requires little attention) cognitive practice

58
Q

ability to use language requires the coordination of

A

cognitive, social, and physical skills

59
Q

what are the four levels of analysis for language

A

a) phonemes
b) morphemes
c)syntax
d) extralinguistic information

60
Q

phonemes

A

categories of sounds our vocal apparatus produces

61
Q

morphemes

A

smallest meaningful unit of speech

62
Q

syntax

A

gramatical rules that govern how we compose words onto meaningful strings

63
Q

extralinguistic information

A

elements of communications that aren’t part of the content of information but are crucial to interpreting the meaning

64
Q

examples of extralingustic information

A
  • facial expressions
  • tone of voice
  • posture
  • gestures
65
Q

phonemes categories are influenced by

A

elements of our vocal tract ( lips, teeth, tongue, vibration of vocal cords, opening and closing of the throat)

66
Q

how many distinct phonemes are there across all the diffrent languages

A

100

67
Q

how many phonemes does english contain

A

between 40 and 45

68
Q

phonemes are the “_________” of language

A

ingredients

69
Q

morphemes are know as the “___________” of language

A

menu items

70
Q

how are morphemes created

A

stringing phonemes together

71
Q

morphemes convey information about _______

A

semantics

72
Q

semantics

A

meaning derived from words and sentences

73
Q

syntax is know as “____________” of lanuage

A

putting together a meal

74
Q

syntax includes

A

orders, morphological markers and sentence structure

75
Q

morphological markers

A

gramatical elements that modify words by adding sounds to them that change their meaning

76
Q

examples of morphological markers

A

s (plural)
ed (past)
ing (ongoing action)

77
Q

extraliguistic information is known as the “_________” of language

A

overall dining experience

78
Q

extralangustic language plays a role in

A

the interpretation of language

79
Q

dialects

A

language variation used by a group of people who share geographic proximity or ethnic background

80
Q

different dialects may employ slight variations of standard

A

pronunciations, vocabulary, and syntax of the language

81
Q

what is the assumption of speakers of non dominate dialects

A

they are trying, but failing to speak the majority (standard) version of the dialect

82
Q

What do evolutionary theorists agree on about language

A

language must offer the human species a strong survival advantage to offset its many disadvantages

83
Q

what is the challange to explaining how language evolved

A

language is generally arbitrary

84
Q

what is the advatage of abitrary language

A

allows us more flexibility to express complex ideas that do not have sounds naturally associated with them

85
Q

what is an example of non arbitrary words

A

onomatopoeia (zoom, buzz, meow, beep, ect. )

86
Q

sound symbolism

A

the fact that certain speech sounds seem to be associated with particular meanings

87
Q

what challenges language as completely arbitrary

A

sound symbolism

88
Q

when are children more efficent learners than adults

A

when learning language

89
Q

when does the language learning process begin

A

when the child is born

90
Q

when can babys begin to make out mothers voices and learn to recognize some characteristics of their mothers language

A

during the fifth month of pregnancy

91
Q

high amplitude sucking procedure uses what method of learning

A

operant conditioning

92
Q

high amplitude sucking procedure

A

2 day old infants suck more on a pacifier when they hear their mothers native language than when they hear a foreign language

93
Q

babbling

A

any intentional vocalization that lacks specific meaning

94
Q

babbling represents an babys

A

increasing control over theur vocal tract

95
Q

do all babaies initially share the same basic phehems regardless of their parents native language

A

yes

96
Q

when are phonemes adjusted to match the parents native language

A

over the first year

97
Q

when are the phoneme categories of infants categoried much like adults

A

10 months

98
Q

what key principle characterizes early word learning

A

comprehension precedes. production

99
Q

whn do children begin to produce their first words

A

around their first birthday

100
Q

what is the vocabulary of children 12-18 months of age

A

20-100 words

101
Q

what are the typical mistakes children make when learning new words

A

overextend and under extend

102
Q

what is the first major milestone in childrens synatic development

A

combining words into phrases

103
Q

one word stage

A

early period of language development when children use single phrases to convey an entire thought

104
Q

when do children begin to use 2 word phrases

A

around the age of 2

105
Q

what is a misconception of sign language

A

it is an elaborative form of gesturing and a charade’s type attempt to act out silently what people would otherwise speak

106
Q

sign language contains its own

A

phonemes, words, syntax, and extralinguistic information

107
Q

what are the 3 common misconceptions about sign language

A
  1. people with hearing loss dont need sign language because they can lip read
  2. learning sign language slows down the ability of children with hering loss to learn to speak
  3. american sign language is just english translated word for word into signs
108
Q

when do babies acquire sign language

A

around the same age that babies aquire spoken language

109
Q

bilingualism

A

proficient and fluent at speaking and comprehending 2 distinct languages

110
Q

is there a delay in syntax when a child is bilingual

A

yes

111
Q

metalinguistic insight

A

awareness of how language is structured and used

112
Q

advantages of bilingualism

A
  • can converse with 2 language communities
  • heightened metalinguistic insight
  • soemargue may add protection from cognitivr decline in patients with Alzheimers
113
Q

wht brain areas are activated when bilingual individuals learn a second language in early development

A

similar brain areas

114
Q

what areas of the brain are activated when bilingual individuals learn the second language later in development

A

use different brain areas

115
Q

the age of exposure more dramatically effects

A

syntax and pronouciation

116
Q

case study for critical periods

A

Genie was seriously neglected and deprived almost entirely of social interactions for 13 years of her life. Once rescued, genie displayed a rudimentary ability to communicate. But she failed to become a fluent language user

117
Q

homesign

A

system of signs invented by children when hearing loss of hearing parents who receive no language input

118
Q

language is described by scientist by having as having a ________ _________

A

sensative period

119
Q

sensative period

A

interval during which people are more receptive to learning and can acquire language more easily

120
Q

Elissa Newport “less is more” hypothesis

A

children have more limited information processing abilities, fewer analytic skills, and less specific knowledge about hoe language works than adult.

Adults try to impose more organization and structure on their learning. Ironically making learning a new language more challenging

121
Q

what is the simplist explanation of children’s language learning

A

learn through imitation

122
Q

why is a imitation based approach unlikely to tell the whole story

A

language is generative

123
Q

generative

A

allowing an infinite number of unique sentences to be created by combining words in novel ways

124
Q

nativist account

A

account of language asquission that suggests children are born with some basic knowledge of how language works
- children are born with expectations that there will be syntactic rules that influence how sentences are constructed

125
Q

language acquisition device

A

hypothetic construct suggested by Noam Chomsky in which nativists beleives syntax resides

126
Q

what is a key weakness of nativist veiw

A

claims are difficult to falsify

127
Q

social pragmatics

A

account of language acquisition that proposes that children infer what words and sentences mean from context and social interactions

128
Q

weakness of social pragmatics account

A

requires us to assume that infants understand a great deal about how other people are thinking

129
Q

general cognitive processing account

A

children’s ability to learn language results form general skills that children apply to a variety of activities

130
Q

what are the challenges to the general cogntive processing account

A
  • children are better at learning languages than adults
  • specific areas of the brain (especially left temporal lobe) are more active in language processing than in other types of learning, memeory, and pattern recognition activites
131
Q

communication in nonhumans i largely based on

A

sex and violence

132
Q

what were the 3 findings for communication of baboons

A
  1. learn better as young animals than adults
  2. tend to learn through observation rather than direct reinforcement
  3. use symbols to comment on or engage in social interactions
133
Q

Stroop colour naming task

A

identify the color of the ink used to print the words; however the printed words contradict the colored ink

134
Q

what does the stroop test demonstrate

A

reading is automatic and hard to inhibit

135
Q

Whole word recognition

A

reading strategy that involves identifying common words based on their appearance without having to sound them out

136
Q

phonetic decomposition (phonics)

A

strategy involves sounding out words by drawing correspondence between printed letters and sounds

137
Q

is speed reading effective

A

yes in the sense that it speeds up reading however beyond a certain point our comprehension suffers enormously

138
Q

how fast does the average post secondary student read

A

200-300 words per minute

139
Q

comprehension results when reading fater than 400 words per minute

A

below 50%

140
Q

scientific scepticism

A

requires us to evalute all claims with an open mind, but insists on compelling evidence before accepting them

141
Q

what are the 6 principles of scientific thinking

A
  1. rule out rival hypothesis
  2. correlation vs. causation
  3. falsifiability
  4. replicability
  5. extraordinary claims
  6. occams razor

PSYC105 (4 decks)

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