Chapter 8: Problem Solving Flashcards
where does problem solving occur in the brain
-Frontal lobe is primarily used for problem solving, particularly the prefrontal cortex
-Humans have the most space in their brain dedicated to prefrontal lobe, so they are the best at problem solving
explain the study that highlights comparative problem solving abilities in other species
Kohler (1927)
-Chimpanzee named Sultan was able to use tools to solve problems
-Psychologist was stranded on islands and worked with animals to solve problems, there was a Chimpanzee who was able to use tools (had bananas on another side of the wall and a monkey was able to use a tool to get to the other side)
what are the three features of problem solving
1) Goal directedness
2) subgoal decomposition
-Taking mini steps to solve a bigger goal, following the certain rules to get to the solution (e.g. the orcs and the hobbits problem)
3) Operator application
-Operators transform one problem state to another (e.g. changing the chains for the circular chain problem)
definition of problem solving
Problem solving is goal-directed behavior that often involves setting subgoals to enable the application of operators.
what are the three ways that problem solving operators can be acquired
Problem-solving operators can be acquired by:
1) DISCOVERY
-Thorndike’s cats, placed in puzzle boxes
-Took cats in boxes that wanted to get out of the crate, in order for it to get out it had to do extremely complicated things like move different levers, cats messed around with stuff until they figured out the sequence of things they need to do to get the door open
2) BY BEING TOLD ABOUT THEM
-Uniquely human—depends on language
-We have language that can help us solve problems
3) BY EXAMPLE
-See someone else solving a problem and apply that themselves
what is an analogy
another way to acquire means to solve problems
-One way to acquire operators
-maps the solution for one problem onto another problem
example of analogy we learned in class with the two different problems
TWO PROBLEMS, DIFFERENT SURFACE STRUCTURE, SIMILAR DEEP STRUCTURE
-Gick and Holyoak (1980)
-Tumor problem
-Tumor with rays and the potential to damage healthy tissue
-Fortress problem
-Gives answer they have to divide up the army and attack the fortress from different angle, this helps them solve the tumor problem
analogical problem solving in humans
-hallmark of human cognition
-Capability nearly unique to humans
-Some evidence for it in chimpanzees
explain use of frontal cortical region
-Activated in analogical reasoning
-Located in right anterior prefrontal cortex
-Studies where you have to find the missing stimuli in an array, individuals who are under five, monkeys, and patients with frontal damage may struggle with this
what are the three criteria humans use to select operators
-Backup avoidance.
-Difference reduction
-Means-ends analysis
what is backup avoidance
-avoiding operators that take one back to a state already visited
but this might be necessary to solve the problem
-You know how to drive from A to B to C
-Go from A to B, and then (accidentally) to D
-Just go back to B
-Much more efficient to just go back to B, but people do not like to do this
what is difference reduction
(hill climbing)
-To reduce the difference between the current state and the goal state (always trying to make forward progress)
-But it might be necessary to increase the difference to solve the problem (might be necessary to move backwards)
Flu shot
-Injecting you with the virus
example of difference reduction
The hobbit and orcs problem
-Steps 6 to 7 – difficult because it involves moving two creatures backwards
-Violates difference reduction (you are technically moving backwards not forwards)
what is means-ends analysis
-Creation of a new goal (end) to enable a problem-solving operator (means) to apply to achieving the old goal
-Creating subgoals and figuring out how to solve them
-Does not abandon an operator if it cannot be applied immediately
explain the example of means-ends analysis
TOWER OF HANOI PROBLEM
-A problem-solving task studied in the laboratory
-Involves moving disks among pegs
-Solved by adapting a means-ends strategy in which subgoals are created
tower of hanoi study
KOTOVSKY ET AL. (1985)
-Studied how people actually approached the Tower of Hanoi problem
-Identified an initial problem-solving period where people adopted fruitless difference-reduction strategy
-Found people then switched to means-ends strategy, after which problem solution came quickly
prefrontal cortex and goal structures
-Plays a critical role in maintaining goal structures
-Those with prefrontal damage have particular difficulty
-when problem solving involves backward movement.
-inhibiting a predominant response.
-fMRI study, the more goals you have the more activity in the prefrontal cortex
what is problem representation
The Importance of the Correct Representation
-How a person represents a problem will influence whether they solve it correctly.
example of problem representation task we did in class
KAPLAN AND SIMON (1990)
-Mutilated-checkerboard problem
-Few people solve the problem without a hint:
-Domino must cover one black and one white square (but there are not an even number of black and white squares on the board so it cannot be done)
-Easy when someone talks about it, but without the hint people do not normally get it correct
explain the easier version of the problem representation task
32 men and 32 women in a village, 2 run off; no way to solve this problem
-Why is this one easier than the other one?
-Similar reasoning is used to solve both problems
-But you represent the marriage problem in a way that makes that reasoning easy to see
-You don’t represent the checkerboard problem that way
what is functional fixedness
The tendency to represent objects as serving conventional problem-solving functions and thus failing to see that they can serve novel functions
example of functional fixedness with string problem
-Hang two strings on opposite side of the room, strings would be just far enough apart that you could tie them together, but your arm span could not reach far enough to grab the other
-Only 39% of Maier’s participants were able to see the solution within 10 minutes.
-A large majority of the participants did not perceive the pliers as a weight that could be used as a pendulum.
example of functional fixedness with candle problem
-Putting candles against the wall so the wax does not drop down, using the box in a way that it is not typically used for
-Do not tend to think of novel uses for objects
-Only think of the box as a holder for tacks
what are set effects
-The biasing of a solution to a problem
as a result of past experiences in solving that kind of problem
-Result when the knowledge relevant to
a particular type of problem solution is strengthened
-People can become biased to prefer certain operators when solving a problem by their experiences.
explain the water jug problem and set effects
-Luchins and Luchins (1959)
-Induced mental set in their research participants
-The task was to measure out a specified quantity of water. Two examples are given below:
-#1 is addition problem: 2A + C
-#2 is subtraction problem: B – A – 2C
-Solving several of one kind of problem in a row “sets” participants and they are more likely to try and use the way they solved the earlier problems for the latter problems
what is the einstellung effect
-Mechanization of thought
-set effect in which people repeat a solution that has worked for previous problems, even when a simpler solution is possible
explain the einstellung effect in the water jug problem
In the water jug problem….
-The equations work for the majority of problems, but there are some exceptions; so there are other easier equations that could be used because the complicated formula could not work
findings from water jug problem
Doing all 10 problems
-83% used B – 2C – A method for #6 and #7
-64% failed to solve problem #8
-79% used B – 2C – A method for #9 and #10
Doing only last 5 problems:
-Fewer than 1% used B – 2C – A for problems
-Only 5% failed to solve problem #8
Because they didn’t have a bias to using some overcomplicated solution which was not the best to use in that specific problem
what are incubation effects
-Solutions may come easier after a break
-Inappropriate strategies are forgotten
example of incubation effects with the necklace problem
-The cheap necklace problem used by Silveira (1971) to investigate the incubation effect
-½ hour to work – 55% solved
-Same with ½ hour break – 64% solved
Same with 4 hour break – 85% solved
Reasoning for this happening has to do with set effects, when you are work on a problem you get set trying to solve a problem the same way and taking a break can help you forget the original way you were trying to solve the problem and try a different strategy
explain insight/insight problems
-Problems whose solution depend on one key insight
-The “aha” experience
-This is a misconception – better to think that at some point we let go of incorrect operators
-Insight problems are ones in which solvers cannot recognize when they are getting close to the solution.
-Cheap necklace problem is thought to be an insight problem
how can you tell if something is an insight problem or not
-Suggested insight problem is one in which people are not aware they are close to a solution
insight: cheap necklace problem vs. tower of hanoi
-Ratings of closeness to solution
-Cheap necklace is an insight problem and the tower of Hanoi is not
-Would ask people every 10-15 seconds how close they thought they were to solving the problem
-Found that when people worked on the cheap necklace problem, they did not know they were about to solve it until they actually solved it; the tower of Hanoi problem was not like this, they felt like they were gradually getting closer to the solution
study that highlighted the misconception of insight problems
-Misconception that solution depend on one key insight; “aha” experience
-Rather than thinking of aha moments, think of it as letting go of things that are not effective and moving to something that is effective
-Sometimes people have that and it doesn’t help
- they don’t recognize importance
Example: mutilated-checkerboard problem
brain research with insight
-Participants laying in fMRI, give them three words and they would have to find another word to connect all three of the words (Print/berry/bird; blue)
-Activity in left prefrontal region as association is solved, successful trials have more activation in this area
