Chapter 8 lecture Flashcards
pragmatic influences
pragmatic means sensible to be sensible is to see the fitting course of action in each situation- this could differ from person to person based on their prior experiences- pragmatic inferences refer to inferences based on prior experiences
Describe Bransford and Johnson 1973
Split participants into 2 groups who heard 5 sentences that were identical expect for the phrase “pounding the nail” (experimental group) and the phrase “looking for the nail” (control group) then asked each group if they had heard the word hammer in the sentences they had heard, (hammer was not present in any of the 5 sentences they had heard). 57% of the experimental group - the group who head the phrase “pounding the nail” wrongly identified hearing the word hammer in their sentences whereas 20% of the control group who heard the phrase “looking for the nail did”
Describe the statement - narraorator gender reveal - source memory test coglab
- Are given a statements such as “I like baseball” - chris and “I like basketball” - pat, make sure that there are two possible sources of statements and that both have gender neutral names
- Reveal the gender of each name ex. Chris - male, Pat - female
- Ask participants to identify which statement was made by which source
Found that statements that when given stereotypical more masculine, (ex following trad gender steretypes the statement I like baseball is more expected from a man because men are more associated with liking sports under them) participants were more likely to attribute them to the male name and vice versa for stereotypically feminine statements. Shows that we are more likley to correctly match a statement with its source if it matches our expectations, (ie chris male name more likely to say “I like baseball” bc men stereotyped as –> leading for us to expect them to like sports more).
What is a schema
Expectations about what a place will look like ex. we expect a classroom to have books in it
What is a script
Expectations about the procedures or actions that will occur in a specific scenerio ex. if we imagine going to a resturant we will expect that we will talk to the receptionist, wait in the waiting area, then be given a seat… etc.
What type of knowledge are scripts and schemas
Scripts and Schemas are both semantic knowledge as we are likely to use them as a general rule rather then in reference to a specific experience ex likely to think I expect a classroom to have books bc most classrooms do and not I expect a classroom to have books because on my first day of second grade my english class had books.
What is an example of a false memory
We read a passage about an office that does not mention the office having books however if when imagining the office our schema,(our expectations of the setting) cause us to picture a book in the imagined office - despite the passage not saying that any are there then we have created a false memory
What was Bower’s 1979 script story experiment?
Asked participants to read a story about going to the dentist then asked them to recall what they had read, found that participants often recalled procedures - like talking to the receptionist - that had not been included in the story. Since participants added actions it demonstrates that their script, (their expectations regarding procedure or action done in a specific circumstance skewed their memory)
describe the false memory cog lab and what the independent and dependent variables were,
how did the original study of this differ from the coglab, and what do the results demonstrate
had participants read a sequence of words ex wood, recliner, stool, sit, sofa… then presented them with a list of words which included some words that had been present in the original sequence, some words that were associated with all the words in the original sequence but not present in the original sequence, (in this case chair is associated with other words in sequence like recliner bc chairs can have recliners sit bc you can sit on chairs sofa bc sofa is a type of chair…etc) and some words that were not in the original sequence and are not associated with all the words of the original sequence, (ex injection)
the independent variables (i like intentionally manipulate- is the variable that researchers intentionally manipulate) are: the length of the original list of words, the length of the list of words that participants are asked to recall if they were in the original list or not, the ammount of words from the original list in the recall list, the ammount of associated distractor words, (distractor words meaning words not present in the original list) in the recall list and the ammount of unassociated distractors in the recall list. Dependent variable - the % of each word on recall list that was identified as being in the original list
Found that words associated distractors were often misidentified as being on the original list. The original study only differed from the coglab in that instead of just saying yes or no to if the words from the recall list were on the original list participants instead rated from 1 to 4 being very low confidence that the word was on the original list and 4 being very high confidence that the word was on the original list- this further demonstrates the dissociation between confidence and accuracy.
It is very hard to avoid making inferences even participants who knew that the study had the purpose of seeing if associated distractors would wrongly be identified as being part of the original list still made monitoring errors, (where individuals identify informaiton as coming from the wrong source)
What are the advantages of filling in the blanks with inferences
We have limited cognitive resources so allows us to potentially accurately fill in the blanks based on what has been true in the past - allowing us to get a full picture
allows us to solve problems, and make decisions
What are the disadvantages of filling in the blanks with inferences
Can create false memories
Describe the misleading information presentation experiment loftus 1978
Showed 2 groups of participants a video of a car driving by a stop sign without a yeild sign being present the experimental group of participants, experimental group was then asked if the car stopped at the yeild sign when it passed the red fire hydrant, (recieved the misleading information presentation) and the control group was asked if the car stopped at the stop sign when it passed the red fire hydrant (and therefore did not recieve the misleading information presentation) - then asked both groups if a yeild sign had been present in the original video found that the experimental group the group who had been given misleading information presentation were more likely to incorrectly report that it had then the control group who had not been given misleading information presentation, demonstrates either retroactive interference where new info intereferes with the abillity to recall old info or monitoring errors where info is attributed to the wrong source.
Loftus 1974 power of suggestion experiment
Showed two groups exact same video of a car collusion - then asked one group of participants to rate the speed that the cars hit each other, and the other group to rate the speed that the cars smashed into each other, (so video was the same and question was the same except that for one group collision was described as “Hit” and the other group collision was described as “smashed”) found that the group who had heard “smashed” reported the cars moving faster then the group who heard the word “hit” even though they had seen the exact same video.
Describe Lindsey 1990 power of suggestion experiment.
Had both groups listen to a female voice describe a computer being stolen then had one group immediately after hearing the first message hear a message form a female voice that contained misleading information in the other group then after a delay of two days heard a male voice give misleading information, both groups were then (2 days after hearing the original message) tested to recall what they had heard found that participants who had heard the misleading female message immediatly after the original message were more likkely to include the misleading info then the group who had heard the misleading male message 2 days after the original message. Suggests that people are more likely to perceive misleading information given by a narrorator with simmilar properties like gender as the original source and given closer to when the original source was given as being from the original source.
Describe Hymans 1995 False memory for early events experiment
Reserchers called participants parents and asked them about experiences the participants had had in early childhood then made up some experiences, (so were experiences that the participants had not had) and included them in a list of experiences the participants had, had; then asked participants if they could recall each experience participants tended to report that they could not for the made up experiment then 2 days later showed the participants the same list of experiences and asked them which ones they could recall- found that they now reported that they could recall the made up exeperiences - this is simmilar to the famous person experiment where participants were more likely to wrongly report a name that they had been shown before as being a name of a celebrity to explain why it is familiar in memory- simmilarily in Hymans 1995 early childhood false memory experiment participants likely explained that the made up story was familliar bc it represented an actual memory -both experiments involve incorrect perceptions of inforemation resulting due to an attempt to explain why it is fammilair. This experiment demonstrates source monitoring error.
Describe Bransford Wells eye witness testimony
Show participants a video of a gunman and then a line up of people, (except the gunman is not in the line up) and ask them to identify if any were the gunman- found that none of the participants correctly identified that the gunman was absent from the lineup. Additionally found that participants could recall more details about the weapon then the perpetrator- since the gun is the scary part this illustrates how in emotional situaitons the emotional aspect of the stimuli will become the target and will be better remembered while everything that is not the most emotional part (the context) will be remembered worse, (when compared with a situation where there is neutral stimuli and participants have the neutral stimuli as the target)
Describe Ross’s 1994 error in eye witness testimony experiment
Split participants in two groups: control group saw a video of a female teacher reading, experimental group saw an identical video with the only difference being that a male teacher was reading both groups then shown a video of a female teacher being robbed. Then asked groups to identify the perpetrator from a line up that included the male highschool teacher -in this stage the experimental group was split experimental group into two sub groups one group where the line up included both the male teacher and the perpetrator and one that included the male teacher but not the perpetrator. Found for the experimental sub group shown the lineup that only contained the male teacher and not the perpatrator 60% of participants misidentified the male teacher as being the perpetrator and for the experimental sub group shown the lineup that contained both the male teacher and the perpetrator 18% of participants misidentified the male teacher as being the perpetrator
How can police questioning word choice promote wrongful eye witness testimony
If police say choose the perpetrator from the line up instead of asking if the perpeatrator is in the line up it implies that there is no possibility that the perpetrator is absent from the lineup. If police say something like “okay” that could indicate agreeement after the participants identify an individual then that could make the participants more confident in their identification as they could percieve it as meaning that the police agree with their choice and therefore that they are more likely right- again confidence is not asssociated with accuracy.
Describe the memory retrieval experiment
show participants a video, ask experimental group to do a recall test, (recall what they had seen in the video) then give them misleading information presentation for control group have them do unrelated task then after same ammount of time passes give them misleading information presentation and then ask both groups to recall what they saw in the video - found the experimental group, (the group given the recall test) 50% of the time wrongly recalled the misleading information as being part of the original video whereas the control group, (the group who was not given the recall test) 30% of the time wrongly recalled the misleading information as being part of the original video. This illustrates how memory can be changed during reconsolidation, (retrival)
What does memory is changeable mean?
Memory is reconstructed over time
What can occur if two eyewitnesses discuss what they saw with each other
Can influence each others testimony if disagree can lower confidence or can cause them to form a false memory from the other persons interpretation of events that they did not actually witness.
What can forming questions like MRs jones said she saw this is that true do
Influence individuals confidence in what they saw
What is the main source of wrongful convictions
Eye witness testimonies
Describe Loftus shopping mall experiment
Called participants parents asked them for stories about their childhood and asked if they had ever gotten lost in a shopping mall if they hadn’t included a story of them getting lost in a shopping mall along with other childhood stories and asked them to write what they remembered of each event from its description. Since the events were given credibility of being from parents the power of suggestion caused some participants to write down in detail a story about being lost in a shopping mall which never happened, (likely this story came from whaat they expected would have happened + believing that a credible source had said that it had happened to them)
