Chapter 10 Textbook notes

Question 1

What is imagery

Answer 1

Imagining a stimulus - experiencing a sense without it physically being there

Question 2

Describe the two examples of visual imagery the textbook uses

Answer 2

Kekule, (like cukoo snake swallowing its tail image came to him was the same shape as thenbenezen atom and mentioned in melvinas therapy)
Einstein imagined himself travelling iwth light

Question 3

Describe Wundts explanation of imagery

Answer 3

Wundt like want - desire is a feeling that could be according to him broken down into more basic blocks of sensation (structuralism) believed that thought, feeling and imagery were the 3 basic components of consciousness, thought that if we wundted to study thought we should study image bc image accompanies thought led to the imageless thought debate- weather we can have thoughts without images or not.

Question 4

Describe Galton’s theory

Answer 4

Galton can imagine a gal tons so I can think at least according to him found that people who struggled to form images also struggled to think

Question 5

Describe Watsons theory about images

Answer 5

Thought that images were mythical and unproven and therefore should not be studied - makes sense because he was a behaviorist so he was not concerned with internal processes

Question 6

What was one of the things that contributed to the cognitive revolution

Answer 6

The idea that behaviour could demonstrate the internal processes behind it and therefore internal processes could be studied through behaviour

Question 7

Descrabe Paivio’s theory about imagery

Answer 7

Paivio like Pave it is easier to remember a concrete noun like pavement, (a noun that we can conjure a universal image for) rather then an abstract noun like justice (a noun that we can not conjure a direct universal image for) found this by giving participants word pairs, (pair associate learning where participants are given a word pair and then presented with the first word from the word pair and asked to recall what the second on was) with concreate and non concreate nouns found that they did better with the concrete nouns. Pavio calle dthe greater ability for us to remember words we can create an image for the conceptual peg hypothesis- we have an image we can hang on to for the noun.
pave and then pe

Question 8

Describe Metzler and Shepards experiment

Answer 8

Mtzler like Met- meta - chromo - mental chronometry showed participants two images of a shape from different angles participants had to then as quickly as possible descide if the image was of the same shape rotated or two different shapes presented at different angles, shepard might rotate sheep participants had to rotate images in their mind to determine if they were the same–> this experiment was important because it examined the relationship between the processes that were used to both view present stimuli and imagine non present stimuli (perception and imagination)

Question 9

Describe Kosslyn’s experiment

Answer 9

Koss lyn like cause lyn you are imagining scene in DH that causes lynn to have a breakdown see her on the phone and then should be easier to if we are focusing on her it would be easier to find objects that are closer to her in our mental image bc we would not have to scan as far
psychs kosslyn had participants memorize a picture of a boat, once they had created a mental image of the picture told them to focus on one aspect such as the anchor then asked them to scan the mental image that they had created and indicate using a true or false button when they saw the motor, found it was easier for participants to remember the location of a feature if it was closer to where their focus had been directed bc it would take them less long to scan for it and therefore less long to navigate their visual image for it.

Question 10

What are alternative explanations for Kosslyns findings

Answer 10

Lea proposed that it took longer for participants to indicate that they had seen parts of the image that were further from their point of focus when scanning their mental image not bc it took them longer to spatially navigate it but bc on their way to looking at it there were more potential features that they could get distracted by ie the cabin of the boat.

Question 11

Describe Kosslyns island experiment

Answer 11

Same point he was trying to prove with the boat experiment that visual imagery had consistent spaital relations rules as you would find if you were actually scanning the object this time gave participats a map of a fictional island told them to memorize it and then told them to indicate when they had travelled from one location to anotehr, (each location was not in each others path so visiting one did not mean passing thorugh the other) since it took them longer to indicate when they had travelled to a location if it was further away Kosslyn used this to fruther support his idea that visual imagery has spaital rules like perception

Question 12

Describe Plylshyn’s conclusions about spaitial representation

Answer 12

Plylshyn like the cat plusheen plylshyn maintains that if I was imagining the cat plusheen under a chair I would not actually see a picture of plusheen and a chair rather I would see the word plusheen and the word chair above it, this is not how I imagine it so makes sense that the research supports descriptive not propositional representation
Propositional represention
epiphenomenon (something that accompanies the real phenomenon that is not part of the real phenomenon - epi like epi pen an epi pen comes along with an allergic reaction but is not part of the allergic reaction) thought that with imagery the image of the objects relationship, (descriptive representation) is as the epi with mental imagery being the allergic reaction - the image of the objects in space can accompany it but is not part of the actual representation the actual representation can be summarized using statements like the cat is under the table rather then the image of a cat under a table, (propositional representation where instead of seeing each object its like we have labels of them written the distance they are apart from eachother) -

Question 13

Describe Kosslyns visual feild task

Answer 13

Kosslyn was the cause lynn to crash out picture if I have the image of her on the phone at the store was interested in if it would take me longer to find an object that was closer to lynn or further if I had been focusing on lynn wanted to see if I would be naviagating my mental image as though it followed the spaitail rule of real life another thing that could impact how I naviage my image is the size of screen I have if I imagine that I am watching DH on a screen that is further away according to Kosslyn then it will take me longer to try to decipher details in my visual image about Lynn then if I imagine I am close- indicating that spatial relations in my visual image work as they do in real life–> Kosslyns experiment asked participants to imagine an image where an elephant and a rabbit were right beside each other and the elephant was in full view, (making the rabbit very zoomed out) and asked them questions like weather or not the rabbit had whiskers compared answere times with participatns who were asked to imagine a rabbit and a fly beside each other where the rabbit was in full view of the frame, (so more zoomed in) found for the more zoomed in version they were able to report more details (so just like with real life distance perception the further you are away from an imaginary object the less clearly you can perceive its features). Also did a mental walk task asked participants to imagine they were walking towards an elephant or a mouse and asked them to stop once the image filled their visual feild, for an elephant participants generally stopped 11 feet away whereas for a mouse stopped one foot away.

Question 14

Describe Perky’s experiment to see if imagery and perception share the same mechanisms

Answer 14

Told participants to envision an image of an object ie a banana in their mind and to imagine that if they had their mental image on a projector how it would be oriented, secretly perky put a dimly lit image of the object on the projector- theorized that if different mechanisms were used for visual and mental imagery participants would be able to tell that a visual image had been projected as they would be able to differentiate between it and their mental imagery. Found that participants described their mental imagery as being the same as the visual imagery and that non of the participants noticed that a picture had been projected, suggests that the same mechanisms are used - perky same. No matter how perky (energetic) and aware someon is they will not be able to differentiate between their visual image and the actual object it represents because according to perkys findings the saem brain structures used for both.

Question 15

Describe Farah’s imagery and perception experiment

Answer 15

some people think fair like farah = the same, farah told participants to imagine a letter either H or T and then click a button which would cause two squares, one that was blank and one that either had an H or a T on it to flash rapidly , found that if the sequare had an H on it and the participants had been forming a mental image of an H they were more likely to correctly identify which square had- had the letter on it then if the square had an H on it and they had been forming a mental image of a T indicates that perceiving and imagining the SAME thing helps to make more accurate decisions/imagining aided in perception.. Imaginging a fair/farah the same thing as what you see helps aid to make more accurate decisions

Question 16

How does single neuron recording work

Answer 16

Involves implementing electrodes in a participant’s brain to try to determine the origin of their seizures so that this area can be taken out as treatment, can with their consent also monitor the activity of neurons during processes like imagination and perception

Question 17

Describe Krieman’s single neruon recording experiment

Answer 17

Krieman like cry man the neuron that responds to seeing a man cry will be the same neuron that is activated when the individual is forming the mental image of a man crying. In Kriemans ex one neuron fired to the picture of a baseball, (found by single neuron recording used when trying to determine the origin of seisures) but not a face the same neuron also fired when making a mental image of a baseball these neurons are called imagery neurons

Question 18

Describe Le Bihan’s findings

Answer 18

Bihan (mulan) can be clocked visually even if claimed to be strait mp - Le Bihan found that the strait cortex was activated both when individuals imagined a stimuli and actually viewed said stimui

Question 19

Describe Goldenburgs findings

Answer 19

Goldenburg - golden is a color asked questions about the color of absent visual stimuli (ex is the green of trees darker then the green of grass) found that asking questions that required partii pants to imagine visual stimuli activated the visual coretex more then questions that did not

Question 20

Describe kosslyns topographic map

Answer 20

Kosslyn - found that when imagineing a boat and asked to scan for a part of it it would take people longer to find said part if it was further away- showing that visual stimuli follows spaitial rules. Further demonstrated that visual stimuli follows spatial rules by asking individuals to imagine. Asked one group of participants to imagine an elephant and a rabbit and another group to imagine a rabbit and a flea -asked both groups to report what details they could see on the rabbit found that the group who imagined the rabbit beside the elephant could report less details regarding the rabbit - this demonstrates that visual imagery follows real spatial rules. Asked participants to also imagine an elephant or a mouse and walk until the image filled up their visual screen found that those who imagined the elephant stopped within 12 feet of their imagined elephant, (reported it as filling their visual frame when they were 13 feet away from it) whereas those who imagined a mouse stopped within 1 foot away from the imagined mouse (reported it filling their visual frame when they were one foot away from it). topography map simmilar idea to elephant and rabbit frame something that is larger will have more details be in the front/tope as far as details go then something smaller even when we are farther away - simmilar idea imagining larger things activated the front of our visual coretex whereas imagining smaller things activated the back of our visual cortex. Simmilarily to how our brain copies spaitial rules when imagining stimulus it’s activation also copies spaitial rules when viewing visual stimulus. If we are viewing something smaller the back of our brain will become activated whereas if we are viewing something larger the front of our brain will get activated - this makes sense because larger objects are more likely to fill up more of our visual feild faster so they will be in front of smaller objects in terms of how quickly they fill our visual feild. Addditionally when looking at points beside each other on a stimulus areas of the brain beside each other will become activated. Kosslyn wanted to see if imagining visual stimuli also followed topographic rules asked participants to imagine visual stimuli that was small medium and large - found that as the size of the stimuli increased the more close to the front the activation became. Could think of front of brain representign full visual- so as size increased and activation moved forward illustrates getting closer to filling up the visual feild.

Question 21

Describe Ganis’s experiment

Answer 21

would I gan (gain) the same activation in the same or different parts of the brain when actually perceiving and imagining a gani - like ghana tree. Had one group of participants look at an image of a tree and then after taking away the image told them to imagine the image- and had another group just look at the image. Asked both groups if the tree was as tall as it was wide. Found that both groups had activation in the same areas in the front of the cortex but the perception group had more activation at the back of the cortex - bc that is where signals from the retina connect to.

Question 22

Describe Amedi’s findings about brain activation comparing perception and visual imagery

Answer 22

Amedi if somone is fragile - get injured easy might need A medi - as in medic - imagined images here are “someone” - Amedi found that individuals imagining an object had less activation in the areas associated with touch then hearing then people perceiving the object - makes sense because imagined images are more fragile then perception so less activation can be allocated to other areas that are unrealated to the image.

Question 23

What is multi pattern voxel analysis?

Answer 23

When brain activation patterns associated with a certain object are fed to a classifier with the goal of being able to present an activation pattern to the classifier and it being able to determine which object created it. Voxels are the single pixel units that make up the images for fMRI imagery.

Question 24

Describe Johnson and Johnsons experiment

Answer 24

Trained a classifier on 4 different scenes, a beach, a house, a field, etc. Then had participants enter an fMRI and view a picture of one of the scenes and the classifier was asked to select out of two possibilities (ex the beach or the house) which of the images the individuals brain activity was the most associated with. Found that the machine could predict with 63% activity, (above chance accuracy - chance accuracy would be considered 50% accuracy) which image the person had been looking. The same experiment was done again except this time the classifier tried to predict based on a person imagining the scene rather then perceiving the picture had 55% accuracy - only slightly but still above chance.

Question 25

Describe Kosslyns TMS experiment

Answer 25

Transcranial magnetic stimulation - involves wrapping a coil around a persons head and then adding a magnetic pulse which can temporarily deactivate an area of the brain - if the person performs less well on a task when a certain brain area is deactivated then it suggests that, that brain area is associated with said task. Kosslyns experiment Had participants look at 4 quadrants that had different arrangments of lines 2 conditions in any condition or group the individuals were asked something about the image ex were the lines in grid 4 longer then the lines in grid 2 condition 1 - TMS applied somewhere other then the visual cortex condition 2 - TMS applied to the visual cortex group 1: looked at a grid that had 4 quadrants where each quadrant had lines at different orientations group 2: had looked at the quadrants just like group 1 but werer told to close their eyes when answereing the question so they were going off of visual imagery from memory Found that for both groups there were slower reaction times when TMS was applied to the visual cortex suggesting that the visual cortex is involved in creating both perception and imagery.

Question 26

Describe what the brain damage patient M.S.G can demonstrate about the role of the visual cortex in imagery

Answer 26

M.S.G had the right side of her occipital lobe surgically removed. Before M.S.G underwent the surgery Farah had her do the visual field walking task- in this Farah was asked to imagine a horse and walk towards the imagined horse only stopping once it filled up her visual field, before the surgery she stopped within 15 feet of the horse however after the surgery she stopped within 35 feet of the horse this further shows how imagery follows the rules of perception (as she had a smaller visual field after the right side of the occipital lobe was removed) so it makes sense that she would not be able to go closer to it without her visual feild filling up.

Question 27

What happens to people who have lost the ability to perceive colors ability to imagine colors

Answer 27

People who have lost the ability to see colors also lose the ability to imagine colors illustrating how imagination simmilarily follows the rules of perception

Question 28

Describe Bisiach and Luzzatti's experiment

Answer 28

Bisiach and Luzzatti, Bi like two Luzzatti - atti like addy address--> did an experiment where they had a man who did not have the bi (two) sides of his visual feild attended to (had unilateral neglect). Told the man to remember an atti that he had been fammiliar with before experiencing the damage to his parietal lobe (that resulted in unilateral neglect) and report what was there, (so he had to form visual imagery of the scene). Found that the man would not report objects that in real life were present on the side that he neglected (despite the fact that he had been to this place before damaging the parietal lobe - so he at least one point knew what was on this side) - illustrates how his imagination once again functioned like perception would.

Question 29

What is unilateral neglect

Answer 29

When a person ignores the half of their visual field that correlates to the half of their parietal lobe that they lost. Parietal like priority priority is moving on from where you are - contains dorsal/where pathway. Damage to the parietal lobe also results in unilateral neglect - where the individual ignores all objects in one half of their visual feild. Parietal like priority it might be a priority to move on from where we are now (dwhere pathway) and parietal like part when the parietal lobe is damaged you ignore part (half of your visual field) unilateral neglect. Unilateral makes sense bc refers to one half and then neglect bc you neglect ignore information in half of your visual field.

Question 30

Describe Gaurgilia's findings

Answer 30

lia like lia draws - have to be able to imagine to draw man gaurgilia examined would not be able to lia draw would have what happened to lia draws style dissassociation changed - man who could not lia c draws could not imagine things but bc demonstrates dissociation (suggesting that perception and imagining are created by different mechanisms) he could percieve things.

Question 31

Describe what R.M showed about perception and imagery

Answer 31

Further showed a potential dissassociaiton between perception and imagery because he could percieve but not imagine - demonstrated by the fact that he struggled to answere questions that required conjuring mental imagery (ex is a grapefruit larger then a fly)

Question 32

Describe Behrmann's findings?

Answer 32

Behrmann - we like to imagine mann are interested in identifying (knowing) our whole seleves but in my perception of reality they are only interested in a part. Behrmann had patient who could imagine the whole of objects but appeared to only be able to percieve parts of them. Ex he called a dart a feather duster likely refering to the fact that the end does resemble a feather duster indicating that he could see parts of the object but not put them together as a whole despite this he was able to draw a dart - indicating that he could imagine it however after a delay when asked to name his drawing he could not.

Question 33

What is visual agnosia

Answer 33

Visual agnosia if dont no (know) sia cant recognize sia visual agnosia is when we have this but not bc we don't know the object we just cant recognize it.

Question 34

Is perception and imagery dissassocated or made by the same functions

Answer 34

Trick question. Perception and imagery is partially made by the same functions (as demonstrated by kosslyn, johnson and johnson, amedi, ganis, and farahs experiments) but also is shown to be paritally dissasocaited by brain damage patients (and luzzatti and biasiachs experiments). Broadly accepted conculsion is that imagery and perception are related but do not share all of the same functions.

Question 35

What are the differences in the experience of imagery and perception?

Answer 35

Perception is instant it just occurs whereas imagery takes some time and effort to create - perception is also maintained whereas imagery can vanish if we do not keep putting in effort (this is what imagery is fragile means)

Question 36

Describe Chalmers and Reisbergs experiment?

Answer 36

Chalmers and Reisberg (imagine super intendent chalmers and skinner arguing over if image is a duck or a rabbit- berg like ice berg lettuce- can be either rabbit or duck food just like how image can be percieved as either rabbit or duck. Chalmers and Reisberg had an image that if looked at from left to right looks like a rabbit bur from right to left looks like a duck. Had one group of participants just look at the image foudn that they coudl easily perceive how it could be a rabbit or a duck and had another group of participants look at the image and then close their eyes when they asked them to flip the image (so that they would see a duck if imagining from right to left) found that participants could not do it could not percieve the duck. Chalmers and Reisbergs experiment illustrates that it is easier to move percieved images then imagined ones.

Question 37

Describe Finke's experiment?

Answer 37

prof finke another character in the simpsons just like superintendent chalmers - so finke's experimetn is tied into same question as chalmers- Finke also wanted to see if people could rotate mental imagery however (finke distinct stereotype more simple) finke wanted to see if the same results (that people could not manipulate visual imagery) would occur when they were asked to manipulate simmilar visual imagery then the rabbit outline -found that participants could rotate a D by 90 degrees and add a J underneath while imagining the letters. So found that we can manipulate simpler visual imagery.

Question 38

Describe Mast and Kosslyn's experiment

Answer 38

Found that individuals could make mental images of rotations of unsimple shapes provided that they were given information on what part of that rotation would look like.

Question 39

What is the method of loci

Answer 39

method of loci is where you imagine a representation of each thing you need to remember at a different areas of a place you know well. Navigating that place later might remind you of the image you imagined there and thus remind you to do whatever it signified. ex us sitting on our chair like a bird in our room us cleaning us walingin into the lounge (where we imagine us scrolling on our laptop to represent studying) if we want to remember to go to the docters could imagine a huge sethascope on the wall of the staircase

Question 40

What is the pegword method of loci?.

Answer 40

We can create a concrete word associated with each number. It is easier to use concrete words that rythm with the word of each number (ex one - bun) because then the word one is somehow related to the object we are imagining so it will be easier to remember, the n if we need to remember to go to the cotors we could imagine a stehoscope winding around a bun - this way it is a method of loci (because we are remembering what we need to do by imagining representations of them in space) and pegword because they are pegged- attached to another word's image

Question 41

What did Galton theorize in regards to imagination

Answer 41

If I can imagine a gal tons like galton then I can think about a gal tons - thinks that in order to be able to think about something we need to be able to imagine it. The way I think about gal tons differs though from the way that others do --> galton people need to be able to imagine somethign to be able to think about it and people will imagine things differently.

Question 42

What is the difference between spaitial imagery and object imagery

Answer 42

Spaitial imagery refers to our ability to imagine a layout ex how well we can imagine a garden whereas object imagery refers to how well we can imagine the features of an object ex can we imagine a red rose with thorns

Question 43

Describe Kozhevnikov's experiment

Answer 43

Did a questionnaire where asked people if they perferred to solve problems verbally or by using imagery. Then from the imagery group presented them with a probelm where they were asked to imagine a sheet of paper folded diagnolly and hole punched and then to identify what the paper would look like unfolede (wher the holes would be) and asked them also to rate on a scale of 1-5 how vivid of an image they could conjure when given the prompt the sunset over the hazy skyline. Found that 63% of the people who had highscores for how vividly they could imagine an object had low visual imagery scores and 51% of the people who answered the paper problem correctly had low scores on the vividness problem. Then showed participants an image where the lines had been broken up and asked participants to identify what the object in the image was (degraded line test)and also asked particiapnts to using seperate two images answere if two images were of the same object or if one was the objects mirror image (mental rotation test). Found the people with high vividness of imagination did better on the degraded line test whereas people with who did well on the spaital imagery test did well on the mental rotation test. Then asked participants a physics problem - says that there is a ball attached to a magnet above a cart - person a is standing in the cart and person b is on the opposite side of the cart and the cart is moving forwards - then asked participants how person a would see the ball falling (either straight, forwards or backwars) and how person b would see the ball falling using the same options. Found most of participants could correctly identify that person A would see the ball falling straight but that 70% of the participants who did well on the spaital imagery tests could correctly identify person b as seeing the ball falling forwards whereas only 18% of people who did well on the vividness of imagined object test could achieve this. Kozhevnikov - like cause have nike off - vividness of imagination group could likely inmagine nike clothes off in great detail whereas spaital imagination group could likely correctly identify how they would rotate when they came ov (off) of course clothes coming ov could be seen as an 18+ scenerio but only if you think vividly adding in more details could include j physics then the clothes themselves (vividness group 18% correctly answered perspec tive b on physics problem) but could say nien like nine to this 6+3 = 9 and punch a hole in deflate this thought bubble (63% of the vividness of imagined object group incorrectly answered the hole punch question) ppl who would take nike to 18+ probably want a 5'1 baddy but jokes on them thats a 70 year old people shrink as they get older (51% of spaital imagery group did poorly on vivid object imagination test and70% answered physics question correctly)

Question 44

Describe all of Kosslyns experiments

Answer 44

Koss lyn --> like cross lyns a boat crosses lyns of ocean has a mast on its top and might have a crest - divided up into quadrants and how clearly we can see the distance depends on our visual fieild cross lyn like a boat crosses the ocean: (imagery navigation asked participants to imagine the outline of a boat, to focus on the motor and then to describe when they reached other parts of the boat - found that participants would take longer to reach points of the boat that were further away from the motor) has a mast (kosslyn and mast found that indiviudals could rotate more ambigoruos imagined shapes if oart of the shape rotated had been drawn for them might be able to rotate a boat if part of it had been drawn out for them) on top (kosslyn topography experiment - topography describes the geolographic features of a landscape in spatial relation to each other simmiliarily topography with brain scanning describes the relation spaitial relation to each other. In topography experiment participants were asked to imagine a small object, a medium object, and a large object while in a brain scanner, if something is small and something large in the same visual feild the large object will take up the whole visual feild so it will be front and center of the visual feild- can see more details whereas the smaller object will be more backgroud - can see less details same logic applies for brain activataion - imagining smaller objects activated the back of the brain and imagining larger objects activated the front of the brain - with brain activation moving forwards as the size of the object increased) and might have a 4 quadrant crest(kosslyn TMS experiment, 2 condtions- condtion 1: participants had their visual cortex deactivated through TMS and condition 2: participants had a different area of their brain deactivated through TMS then asked participants to while either looking at a grid with 4 quadrants where in each quadrant had lines at differnt orientations or having looked at this image and now with eyes closed recall (making them create a mental image of the grid) if the lines in quadrant 2 were the same length as the lines in quadrant 4- found that participants under both conditions did worse when their visual cortex was deactivated) and if you look in the distance you get less of a clear view(asked one group of participants to imagine a rabbit besides an elephant (where the whole elephant was in the visual feild) and another group to imagine a rabbit besides a flea and asked both groups to report the features of the rabbit that they could see- found that the group who imagined the rabbit besides the flea could report more details then the group who imagined the rabbit besides the elephant this fits with how perception works in real life. In order to see the entire elephant we needed to be further away from the rabbit, in real life when we are further away from something we see it less clearly since when we are imagining something further away we also can not imagine it as clearly it demonstrates that our imagination follows the rules of our perception) but if you sail closer (mental walk task asked participants to imagine an elephant and then walk until it filled their whole visual feild (found that participants usually walked 35? feet away from the elephant) and asked them to do the same task with a mouse and found that paritipcants usually walked one foot away from the imagined mouse.