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Microbiology Exam 2 > Chapter 8 - Genetics > Flashcards

Chapter 8 - Genetics Flashcards

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1
Q

What is genetics?

A

Science of heredity and gene function

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2
Q

Who is the father of genetics?

A

Gregor Mendel

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3
Q

Where are genes found?

A

Chromasomes

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4
Q

How many DNA molecules are on 1 chromosome?

A

1

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5
Q

How many pairs of chromosomes are in each human cell?

A

23

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6
Q

What are DNA and RNA molecules made of?

A

Nucleiotides

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7
Q

What 3 elements make up a nucleotide?

A
  • nitrogenous base
  • phosphate group
  • sugar (deoxyribose or ribose)
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8
Q

What are the nitrogenous bases of DNA?

A

Adenine
Cytosine
Guanine
Thymine

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9
Q

What are the nitrogenous bases of RNA?

A

Adenine
Cytosine
Guanine
Uracil

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10
Q

What shape is DNA?

A

Double helix

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11
Q

What shape is RNA?

A

Single linear

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12
Q

What bonds the nitrogenous bases to each other?

A

Hydrogen bonds

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13
Q

What is the name of the genetic information of the cell and knowing what each gene codes for?

A

Genome

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14
Q

What is Genomics?

A

The study of gene sequencing and molecular characteristics of genome

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15
Q

What are chromosome pairs 1-22 called?

A

Autosomes

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16
Q

What is the 23rd chromosome known as?

A

The sex chromosome

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17
Q

What does XX code for?

A

Female

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18
Q

What does XY code for?

A

Male

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19
Q

What determines base sequences on DNA or RNA?

A

Genetic Code

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20
Q

What is the general sequence of DNA coding?

A

DNA - transcription - RNA - translation - protein

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21
Q

Where does transcription take place?

A

In nuclear area

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22
Q

Where does translation take place?

A

In cytoplasm

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23
Q

Does DNA or RNA carry the genetic code?

A

RNA

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24
Q

What reads genetic code?

A

Ribosomes

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25
Q

What are codons?

A

Triplet bases of genetic code (ex. AUG)

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26
Q

For what does each codon code?

A

Specific amino acid

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27
Q

What is Degeneracy of Code?

A

The idea that some parts of the genetic code are redundant; more than one codon can code for the same protein

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28
Q

What is the genotype?

A

The actual genetic makeup

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29
Q

What is phenotype?

A

Physical characteristics coded for by genotype

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30
Q

If a gene is AA, what is it classified as?

A

Homozygous dominant

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31
Q

What is Aa classified as?

A

Heterzygous dominant

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32
Q

What is aa classified as?

A

Homozygous recessive

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33
Q

What is the official name for a double chromosome?

A

Diploid

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34
Q

What is the official name for a single chromosome?

A

Haploid

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35
Q

How does DNA Replication work?

A
  • double helix splits
  • Replication begins at replication fork
  • DNA polymerases bring complementary nucleotides and proofread mistakes
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36
Q

How many replication forks do proks have?

A

One

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37
Q

How many replication forks do euks have?

A

Many

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38
Q

One DNA molecule makes how many double stranded DNA molecules?

A

2

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39
Q

What makes the flow of genetic information through generations possible?

A

Semi-conservative replication (of DNA)

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40
Q

Is 3’ or 5’ read first?

A

3’

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41
Q

In DNA replication, which strand is formed from the outside to the replication fork?

A

Leading Strand

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42
Q

In DNA replication, how does the lagging strand operate?

A

From the replication fork to the outside

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43
Q

Which bacteria replicates DNA bidirectionally?

A

E. coli

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44
Q

What does it mean to replicate bidirectionally?

A

Have 2 replication forks, each with leading and lagging strand

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45
Q

Does RNA replication work the same as DNA replication, why or why not?

A

No, 1 double strand of DNA vs. 2 single strands of RNA

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46
Q

What are the three types of RNA?

A

rRNA - ribosomal
tRNA - transport
mRNA - messenger

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47
Q

What is the primary function of rRNA?

A

Makes up ribosomes

48
Q

What is the primary function of tRNA?

A

Bring amino acids back to the ribosome

49
Q

What is the primary function of mRNA?

A

Translation

50
Q

What does the expression of genetic information for a specific protein depend on?

A

Genetic code on mRNA

51
Q

Why are proteins made only as needed?

A

It takes a lot of energy

52
Q

What controls when and which proteins are made?

A

Cells themselves through repression systems that inhibit RNA polymerase

53
Q

Do proks use the entire DNA molecule as a template to make RNA?

A

Yes

54
Q

Do euks use the entire DNA molecule as a template to make RNA?

A

No

55
Q

What are exons?

A

Regions of DNA molecule used to make RNA

56
Q

What is the name of the regions of a DNA molecule that aren’t used to make RNA?

A

Introns

57
Q

What are mutations?

A

Changes in genetic info

58
Q

Do mutations change the genotype?

A

Yes

59
Q

Do mutations change the phenotype?

A

Sometimes

60
Q

Are mutations generally positive, negative, or neutral?

A

Generally positive, some of all

61
Q

Why do most positive mutations occur?

A

Adaptation, increase survival

62
Q

What is the name of a base-pair substitution mutation?

A

Missense mutation

63
Q

What happens in a missense mutation?

A

A different protein is coded for, energy is wasted

64
Q

What is a frame shift mutation?

A

Insertion, deletion, or translocation of nucleiotides; makes different protein

65
Q

What is the name of the mutation that puts a stop codon where it should not be?

A

Nonsense mutation

66
Q

If a mutation is deadly, what is it called?

A

Lethal mutation

67
Q

What is a mutagen?

A

Anything that directly or indirectly causes a mutation

68
Q

What is a mutant?

A

Something that has already mutated

69
Q

What is mutation rate?

A

Probability that a gene will mutate in DNA replication

70
Q

How common are mutations?

A

Rare

71
Q

What are 2 possible ways to identify mutants and how do they work?

A
  1. Positive/Direct Selection - select for mutant by eliminating non-mutant (ex. penicillin in media, only resistant organisms will grow)
  2. Negative/Indirect Selection - select for mutant based on mutant’s inability to undergo a certain biochemical reaction (ex. mannitol fermentor mutated to be unable to ferment mannitol)
72
Q

What are the benefits of testing for mutagens over carcinogens?

A

Carcinogen tests are long and costly, mutagen tests are not and most mutagens are carcinogens

73
Q

What percent of mutagenic substances are also carcinogenic?

A

90%

74
Q

What is the Ames Test?

A

A mutagenic test that tests for several properties

75
Q

What are the 3 interchangeable terms that describe the exchange of genetic information between DNA molecules either within cells, between cells, or between organisms?

A

Genetic Recombination, DNA recombination, and Biotechnology

76
Q

What is the Vertical Gene Transfer?

A

The idea that one generation passes genes to the next generation (e.g. parents to children)

77
Q

When does Vertical Gene Transfer occur in humans?

A

Meiosis - Prophase 1

78
Q

What is Horizontal Gene Transfer?

A

A lateral transfer of genetics from one organism to another of the same generation

79
Q

In Horizontal Gene Transfer, what are the two roles an organism can assume?

A

Donor cell - giving genetic information

Recipient cell - receiving genetic information

80
Q

Once a recipient cell has received transferred DNA, what is it called?

A

A hybrid or recombinant cell

81
Q

What is transformation?

A

When a donor cell lyses and a recipient cell takes in their genetic information

82
Q

What 3 genera of bacteria can undergo transformation?

A

Streptococcus
Bacillus
Haemophilus

83
Q

What is the major disadvantage of transformation?

A

The donor cell dies and not all info makes it into the recipient cell

84
Q

How does conjugation work?

A

Donor cell extends pili and transfers genetic info

85
Q

What 3 things does conjugation require?

A

Plasmid (extrachromosomal DNA), pili, cell to cell contact

86
Q

Do G- or G+ cells have pili?

A

Only G-

87
Q

What are the advantages of conjugation?

A

Donor doesn’t die and more genetic info makes it to the recipient

88
Q

How does transduction work?

A

Requires virus (phage) to inject info into recipient cell

89
Q

What are the 5 steps of transduction?

A
  1. Phage inserted into lytic cell
  2. Recipient DNA destroyed by viral enzymes
  3. Recipient cell’s reproductive machinery used to replicate phage DNA
  4. Recipient cell packages viral DNA into capsids
  5. Recipient cell is lysed and virulent phages are released
90
Q

How does the lysogenic cycle work?

A

The phage DNA enters recipient cell and chills; becomes incorporated into host DNA - prophage; replicates with host

91
Q

What is the name of a daughter cell with combined DNA from its parents and the virus?

A

Temperate phage

92
Q

Do temperate phages infect other host cells?

A

NO

93
Q

What is a lysogenic cell?

A

Any cell that undergoes lysogeny

94
Q

What happens to lysogenic cells?

A

They remain lysogenic until they are triggered into lytic cells

95
Q

Is lysogeny good or bad for the lysogenic cell?

A

Good, it gives them advantages

96
Q

What are some of the advantages of lysogenic cells?

A
  • immune to infection by the same type of virus
  • Gain new properties
  • gain new genes that increase chances of survival
97
Q

If a cell gains new properties because it is lysogenic, what is that called?

A

Phage conversion

98
Q

What is an example of phage conversion?

A

C. diptheriae - only disease causing when it produces a toxin that is triggered by the presence of a certain virulent phage

99
Q

What is a plasmid?

A

Extrachromosmal circular piece of DNA that carries genetic info to increase survival

100
Q

What are the 3 types of plasmid?

A
  1. f factor
  2. Dissimilated
  3. R factor
101
Q

What does an f factor plasmid do

A

fertility - allows cells to make pili

102
Q

What does a Dissimilated plasmid do?

A

allows organisms to use different carbon or energy source

103
Q

What is an R factor plasmids function?

A

resistance - code for enzymes that inactivate toxins or medications

104
Q

There is a fourth unnamed plasmid, what are its 2 functions?

A
  1. make a pathogen more variolent

2. turn non-pathogen into pathogen

105
Q

What is variolancy?

A

The degree of pathogenicity

106
Q

Where are plasmids frequently used?

A

Biotechnology

107
Q

What are transposons?

A

Small fragments of DNA that can be moved

108
Q

What are the 3 ways transposons can move?

A
  1. one area of the chromosome to another
  2. one chromosome to another on the same organism
  3. from a chromosome to a plasmid
109
Q

What is “jumping genes” the nickname of?

A

Transposons

110
Q

Several transposons may make up what?

A

A plasmid

111
Q

Transposons can wreak havoc in what?

A

The gene sequence

112
Q

Extrachromosomal agent of chaos in cells

A

Transposons

113
Q

Up to a certain point, what controls genes?

A

Cells themselves

114
Q

Within one cell or between cells, what 4 things can happen to genes?

A
  1. Alteration
  2. Deletion
  3. Insertion
  4. Translocation
115
Q

Genes increase variety, which in turn does what?

A

Increases diversity

Microbiology Exam 2 (4 decks)

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