Chapter 8: Cause and Effect Reasoning

Question 1

Causality

Answer 1

-Causality occurs when one event is said to make another occur. The cause is the event that makes the other occur, the effect is the event that follows from the cause.

Question 2

How to recognize causality:

Answer 2

-A single cause makes an effect happen. Thus, there is an identifiable type of expression that is typically used to indicate a causal relationship is present
-These following words introduce a basic cause and effect relationship:

Caused by
Because of
Responsible for
Reason for
Leads to
Induced by
Promoted by
Determined by
Produced by
Product of
In an effect of

Question 3

Difference between causality and conditionality: The chronology of the two events can differ

Answer 3

• In cause and effect statement there is an implied temporal relationship: the cause must happen first and the effect must happen at some point in time after the cause
• In sufficient and necessary statements there is no implied temporal relationship: the sufficient condition can happen before, at the same time as, or after the necessary condition

Question 4

Difference between causality and conditionality: The connection between the events is different

Answer 4

• In cause and effect statement the events are typically related in a direct way: “she swerved to avoid hitting the dog and that caused her to hit the tree.” The cause physically makes the effect happen

-In conditional statements the sufficient and necessary conditions are often related directly, but they do not have to be: “Before the war can end, I must eat this ice cream cone.” The sufficient condition does not make the necessary condition happen, it just indicates that it must occur

Question 5

Difference between causality and conditionality: The language used to introduce the statements is different

Answer 5

-The words that introduce each type of relationship are very different. Causal indicators are typically active, relatively powerful words, whereas most conditional indicators do not possess those traits

Question 6

Causality in the conclusion

Answer 6

-If the causal statement is the conclusion, then the reasoning is possibly flawed.

Question 7

Causality in the premise

Answer 7

-If the causal statement is in the premise, then the argument may be flawed, but most likely not because of the causal statement

Question 8

Situation that can lead to errors of causality: One event occurs before another

Answer 8

• When one event occurs before another event, many people fall into the trap of assuming that the first event caused the second event. This does not have to be the case, as shown by the following example:

Every morning the rooster crows before the sun rises. Hence, the rooster must cause the sun to rise.