Chapter 8 Anatomy and Physiology: Vital Vocabulary Flashcards
The commonly used blood classification system, based on the antigens present or absent in the blood
ABO system
The muscles not normally used during quiet breathing; examples include the sternocleidomastoid muscles of the neck, the chest pectoralis major muscles, and the abdominal muscles
accessory muscles
The ability of the lens of the eye to change its shape to focus on a close object
accommodation
The socket formed by the coxal (hip) bone into which the ball-shaped femoral head fits snugly
acetabulum
A neurotransmitter released at synapses within the autonomic nervous system and by motor neurons to stimulate skeletal muscle contraction
acetylcholine (ACh)
An enzyme found in the central nervous system, in red blood cells, and in motor endplates of skeletal muscle that causes the decomposition of acetylcholine
acetylcholinesterase
Any molecule that can give up a hydrogen ion, and therefore increases the concentration of hydrogen ions in a water solution
acid
A pathologic condition resulting from the accumulation of acids in the body (blood pH less than 7.35)
acidosis
The tip of the shoulder and the site of attachment for the clavicle and various shoulder muscles
acromion process
Sequence of changes in the membrane potential that occurs when an excitable cell (neuron or muscle) is stimulated
action potential
A contractile protein found in the thin filaments of skeletal muscle cells
actin
A method used to move compounds across a cell membrane to create or maintain an imbalance of charges, usually against a concentration gradient and requiring the expenditure of energy
active transport
The temporary or permanent reduction of sensitivity to a particular stimulus
adaptation
The nucleotide formed from the metabolism of nutrients in the cell; involved in energy metabolism; used to store energy
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
The outer layer of the adrenal gland; it produces hormones that are important in regulating the water and salt balance of the body
adrenal cortex
Paired endocrine glands located on top of the kidneys that release epinephrine and norepinephrine when stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system; each adrenal gland consists of an inner adrenal medulla and an adrenal cortex
adrenal glands
Having the characteristics of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system
adrenergic
Hormone that targets the adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol (a glucocorticoid)
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Metabolism that can proceed only in the presence of oxygen
aerobic metabolism
The perception that a stimulus is still present after the stimulus has been removed
afterimage
The pressure in the aorta against which the left ventricle must pump blood
afterload
The smallest of plasma proteins; they make up around 60% of the plasma proteins and are responsible for the oncotic pressure in the vasculature, thereby controlling the movement of water into and out of the circulation.
albumins
A hormone responsible for the reabsorption of sodium and water from the kidney tubules
aldosterone
A pathologic condition resulting from the accumulation of bases in the body (blood pH greater than 7.45)
alkalosis
Variant forms of a gene, which can be identical or slightly different in a sequence of deoxyribonucleic acid
alleles
The air sacs of he lungs in which the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place; also, the bony sockets for the teeth that reside in the mandible and maxilla
alveoli (singular, alveolus)
The building of larger substances from smaller substances, such as the building of proteins from amino acids
anabolism
Metabolism that occurs in the absence of oxygen
anaerobic metabolism
The study of the structure of an organism and its parts
anatomy
A prominence of the sternum that indicates the point where the second rib joins the sternum; also called the sternal angle or manubriosternal junction
angle of Louis
A molecule that blocks the ability of a given chemical to bind to its receptor, preventing a biologic response
antagonist
Proteins, polysaccharides, glycoproteins, or glycolipids commonly found on the surfaces of red blood cells that stimulate an immune system response and cause formation of antibodies; cells learn to recognize antigens as either “self” or “nonself” (foreingn
antigens
The principal artery leaving the left side of the heart and carrying freshly oxygenated blood to the body; the largest artery in the body
aorta
The semilunar valve that regulates blood flow from the left ventricle to the aorta
aortic valve
A portion of the pons that is thought to work with the pontine respiratory group to regulate the length and depth of inspiration
apneustic center
The portion of the skeletal system made up of the upper extremities, shoulder girdle, pelvic girdle, and lower extremities
appendicular skeleton
Watery fluid filling the anterior eye cavity; the quantity determines the intraocular pressure, which is critical to sight
aqueous humor
A type of loose connective tissue that binds skin to underlying organs and fills in spaces between muscles
areolar tissue
Six paired cartilages stacked on top of each other in the larynx
arytenoid cartilages
Condition where parts of the image are out of focus and others are in focus; caused by irregularities in the shape of the eye lens
astigmatism
The first cervical vertebra (C1), which provides support for the head
atlas
The two upper chambers of the heart
atria (singular, atrium)
A hormone produced by the atria when they are distended by increased blood volume; it inhibits the absorption of water and sodium in the renal tubules, thereby increasing the elimination of water
atrial natriuretic peptide
A group of cells that conduct an electrical impulse through the heart; located in the floor of the right atrium immediately behind the tricuspid valve and near the opening of the coronary sinus
atrioeventricular (AV) node
The mitral and tricuspid valves through which blood flows from the atria to the ventricles
atrioventricular (AV) valves
Ability of cardiac pacemaker cells to initiate an electrical impulse spontaneously without being stimulated from another source (such as a nerve)
automaticity
A subdivision of the nervous system that controls primarily involuntary body functions; comprised of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
The chromosomes that do not carry genes that determine sex.
autosomes
The portion of the skeleton made up of the skull, thoracic cage, and vertebral column.
axial skeleton
Imaginary line joining the positive and negative electrodes of a lead; also the second cervical vertebra.
axis
Long, slender extension of a neuron (nerve cell) that conducts electrical impulses away from the nerve cell body to adjacent cells.
axon
Lymphocytes that exist in the blood, and are abundant in the lymph nodes, bone marrow, intestinal lining, and spleen; also called B cells.
B lymphocytes
Nerve endings that are stimulated by pressure; they are located in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses.
baroreceptors
Structures located deep within the cerebrum, diencephalon, and midbrain that have an important role in coordination of motor movements and posture.
basal ganglia
The rate at which nutrients are consumed in the body.
basal metabolic rate
White blood cells that contain histamine granules and other substances that are released during inflammatory and allergic responses.
basophils
A waste product of red blood cell destruction that undergoes further metabolism in the liver.
bilirubin
The merging of two images into one.
binocular vision
A layer of tightly-adhered cells that protects the brain and spinal cord from exposure to medications, toxins, and infectious particles.
blood-brain barrier
Soft tissue that fills the inside of bones and is the site of production of red blood cells, platelets, and most white blood cells.
bone marrow
The collection of hollow in the bone of the inner ear that provide protection to the structures of the inner ear from damage and from extraneous of stimulation.
bony labyrinth
Gas law that demonstrates that as pressure increases, volume decreases; at a constant temperature, the volume of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure (if the pressure on a gas is doubled, then its volume is halved); written as PV=K, where P= pressure, V=volume, and K= a constant.
Boyle’s law
The part of the central nervous system located within the cranium; contains billions of neurons that serve a variety of functions including consciousness, perception, control of reactions to the environment, emotional responses, and judgement.
brain
The area of the brain between the spinal cord and cerebrum that contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla; controls functions that are necessary for life, such as breathing.
brainstem
Abnormal whooshing sounds indicating turbulent blood flow within a narrowed blood vessel, usually heard in the carotid arteries.
bruit
Fast-acting defenses for acid-base changes, providing almost immediate protection against changes in the hydrogen ion concentration of extracellular fluid.
buffer system
The portion of the conduction system of the heart located in the upper portion of the interventricular septum that conducts an electrical impulse from the atrioventricular function to the right and left bundle branches.
bundle of His
A small, padlike sac or cavity filled with a small amount of synovial fluid that helps reduce the amount of friction between a tendon and a bone or between a tendon and a ligament, usually located near a joint.
bursa
The heel bone; the largest of the tarsal bones.
calcaneus
The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a gram of after by 33 degrees Fahrenheit (1 degree Celsius); the amount of energy that can be obtained from the nutrients you eat; also called a kilocalorie.
calorie
Substances (including sugars and starches) that provide much of the energy required by the body’s cells, as well as helping to build cell structures.
carbohydrates
The repetitive pumping process that begins with the onset of cardiac muscle contraction and ends just before the beginning of the next contraction; each one consists of ventricular contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole).
cardiac cycle
The point of bifurcation of the right and left primary (mainstem) bronchi.
carina
The eight small bones of the wrist.
carpal bones
Those connected by hyaline cartilage, or fibrocartilage, such as the joints that separate the vertebrae.
cartilaginous joints
The breakdown of larger molecules into smaller ones.
catabolism
Clouding of the lens of the eye or its surrounding transparent membrane.
cataract
Amine substances such as dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine that function as neurotransmitters, hormones, or both.
catecholamines
The cell wall; a selectively permeable layer of cells that surround intracellular contents and control movement of substances into and out of the cell; also called the cytoplasmic membrane or plasma membrane.
cell membrane
A biochemical process resulting in the production of energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate.
cellular respiration
The brain and spinal cord.
central nervous system (CNS)
Area of the brain involved in fine and gross muscle coordination; responsible for interpretation of actual movement and correction of any movements that interfere with coordination and the body’s position.
cerebellum
The outer covering of gray matter that covers the cerebral hemispheres; regulates voluntary skeletal movement and plays an important role in one’s level of awareness.
cerebral cortex
Pressure inside the cerebral arteries and an indicator of brain perfusion; calculated by subtracting intracranial pressure from mean arterial pressure.
cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP)
Fluid produced in the ventricles of the brain that flows in the subarachnoid space and bathes the meninges.
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
The largest part of the brain; made up of several lobes that control movement, hearing, balance, speech, visual perception, emotions, and personality; divided into right and left hemispheres; also called gray matter.
cerebrum
The interior of the cervix.
cervical canal
The lower one-third or neck of the uterus.
cervix
Sense organs that monitor the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide and the pH of cerebrospinal fluid and blood and provide feedback to the respiratory centers to modify the heart rate and depth of.breathing based on the body’s needs at any given time.
chemoreceptors
Having the characteristics of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system; also refers to other structures or functions that are related to acetylcholine.
cholinergic
Thin bands of fibrous tissue that attach to the atrioventricular valves in the heart and prevent them from inverting.
chordae tendineae
The vascular, pigmented middle layer of the eye wall.
choroid
Group of specialized cells in the ventricles of the brain; filters blood through cerebral capillaries to create cerebrospinal fluid.
choroid plexus
Structures formed from condensed fibers and protein of deoxyribonucleic acid; they are threadlike, and are contained within the nucleus of the cells.
chromosomes
Related to the effect of the rate of contraction of the heart.
chronotropic effect
The structure associated with the choroid layer of the eye that secretes aqueous humor and contains the ciliary muscle.
ciliary body
The complex arrangement of connected tubes, including the arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules , and veins, that moves blood, oxygen, nutrients, carbon dioxide, and cellular waste throughout the body.
circulatory system
One of two branches of the left main coronary artery.
circumflex coronary artery
A sequence of enzymatic reactions involving the metabolism of carbon chains of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids to yield carbon dioxide, water, and high-energy phosphate bonds; also known as he Krebs cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle.
citric acid cycle
A set of interactions that lead to the formation of a fibrin clot; also called the coagulation cascade.
clotting cascade
The portion of the inner ear that has hearing receptors.
cochlea
A substance that can be broken down into the two or more elements contained within it.
compound
The property that allows a cardiac cell to receive an electrical impulse and pass it on to an adjoining cardiac cell.
conductivity
One of two photoreceptors of the retina that can distinguish colors, but requires a greater amount of light to activate and create an image.
cones
The membranous covering on the anterior surface of the eye that also lines the eyelids.
conjunctiva
Inflammation of the conjunctiva.
conjunctivititis
Tissues that bind, support, protect, frame, and fill body structures; they also store fat, produce blood cells, repair tissues, and protect against infection.
connective tissues
The ability of myocardial cells to shorten in response to an impulse, which results in contraction.
contractility
The transparent tissue layer in front of the pupil and iris of the eye.
cornea
Venous drain for the coronary circulation into the right atrium.
coronary sinus
A deep bridge of nerve fibers connecting the brain hemispheres.
corpus callosum
Any of several steroids secreted by the adrenal gland.
corticosteroids
A glucocorticoid of the middle adrenal cortex that influences protein and fat metabolism and stimulates glucose to be synthesized from noncarbohydrates.
cortisol
The 12 pairs of nerves that arise from the base of the brain.
cranial nerves
The bones that encase and protect the brain, including the parietal, temporal, frontal, occipital, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones; the roof of the skull (cranium).
cranial vault
The area of the head above the ears and eyes; the part of the skull that houses the brain.
cranium
A horizontal bone perforated with numerous openings for the passage of the olfactory nerve filaments from the nasal cavity.
cribiform plate
A firm ridge of cartilage that forms the lower part of the larynx; the first ring of the trachea and the only upper airway structure that forms a complete ring; also called the cricoid ring.
cricoid cartilage
A thin sheet of fascia located between the thyroid and cricoid cartilage that is relatively a vascular an contains few nerves; the site for emergency access to the airway.
cricothyroid membrane
The gel-like material that fills out a cell; it makes up most of the volume of the cell, and suspends the organelles of the cell.
cytoplasm
A dense layer of fibrous tissue below the subcutaneous tissue; composed of tough bands of tissue that surround muscles and other internal structures.
deep fascia
Branchlike projections of nerve cells that receive impulses or sensory information from nearby cells and conduct impulses toward the nerve cell body.
dendrites
Specialized structure within the cell that carries genetic material for reproduction.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
In response to an action potential, the rapid movement of electrolytes across a cell membrane that changes overall charge of the cell. This rapid shifting of electrolytes and cellular charges is the main catalyst for muscle contractions and neural transmissions.
depolarization
The area of the skin supplied by a specific sensory spinal nerve.
dermatome
The portion of the aorta that extends through the thorax and abdomen into the pelvis.
descending aorta
A process whereby leukocytes move through the wall of a capillary and out to the tissues where they are needed most.
diapedesis
Large skeletal muscle that plays a major role in breathing and separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity.
diaphragm
The shaft of a long bone.
diaphysis
Phase of the cardiac cycle in which the atria and ventricles relax between contractions and blood enters these chambers.
diastole
Portion of the brain between the brainstem and cerebrum; contains the epithalamus, the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the subthalamus.
diencephalon
The process of specialization of a cell.
differentiation
The process of particles moving from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration along a concentration gradient until equilibrium is achieved.
diffusion
The chemical breakdown of food material into smaller fragments that can be absorbed into the circulatory system.
digestion
Cells that carry two of each of the 23 chromosomes—-one from the father and one from the mother.
diploid cells
A portion of the medulla oblongota that functions as an respiratory integration center; it receives input from several sources including the pontine respiratory group, sensory input through the glossopharyngealand vagus nerves, central chemoreceptors in the medulla and peripheral chemoreceptors.
dorsal respiratory group (DRG)
The outermost of the three meninges that enclose the brain and spinal cord; it is the toughest meningeal layer.
dura mater
Salt or acid substances that become ionic conductors when dissolved in a solvent (such as water); chemicals dissolved in the blood.
elecrtolytes
The thin membrane lining the inside of the heart.
endocardium
Glands that have no ducts and secrete directly into tissue fluid or blood.
endocrine glands
The complex message and control system that integrates many body functions, including the release of hormones.
endocrine system
The fluid containing nerve receptors that resides inside the membranous labyrinth. Sound waves converted into pressure waves are transmitted through this fluid to the auditory nerves.
endolymph
A subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that controls the digestive system.
enteric nervous system (ENS)
Substances designed to speed up the rate of specific biochemical reactions.
enzymes
A leukocyte that may play a role following infection in various areas in the body.
eosinophil
The layer of the serous pericardium that lies closely against the heart; also called the visceral pericardium.
epicardium
A thin, flaplike structure that allows air to pass into the trachea but prevents food and liquid from entering.
epiglottis
A hormone produced by the adrenal medulla that has a vital role in the function of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system; medicates the fight-or-flight response; also called adrenaline.
epinephrine
The growth plate of a long bone; a major site of bone development during childhood; also called the physis.
epiphyseal plate
Body tissues that cover organs, form the inner lining of cavities, and line hollow organs.
epithelial tissues
A hormone released from the ovaries that stimulates the uterine lining during the menstrual cycle.
estrogen
A branch of the internal auditory canal that connects the middle ear to the oropharynx.
eustachian tube
The ability of cardiac muscle cells to respond to an electrical, chemical, or mechanical stimulus.
excitability
The passive part of the breathing process in which the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles relax, forcing air out of the lungs.
exhalation
Glands that secrete chemicals into ducts that open onto a surface for elimination.
exocrine glands
The amount of air that can be exhaled following a normal exhalation; average volume is about 1,200 mL.
expiratory reserve volume
Fluid outside of the cell, in which most of the body’s supply of sodium is contained; accounts for 15% to 20% of body weight.
extracellular fluid (ECF)
Referring to the eye; six muscles that attach to the exterior of the globe an are controlled by the cranial nerves.
extrinsic muscles
A sheet or band of tough fibrous connective tissue that covers, supports, and separates muscles, and which also cover arteries, veins, tendons, and ligaments.
fascia
A white, insoluble protein formed by the action of thrombin on fibrinogen during the blood clotting process; forms the matrix of a blood clot.
fibrin
A plasma protein protein that is important for blood clotting.
fibrinogen
Joints that lie between bones that closely contact each other, joined by thin, dense connective tissue.
fibrous joints
The movement of fluid from intravascular fluid under high pressure to interstitial fluid, which is generally under lower pressure.
filtration
The process of maintaining homeostasis through equal intake (water taken into the body) and output (water excreted from the body) of fluids.
fluid balance
The soft spots in the skull of a newborn and infant where the sutures of the skull of a newborn and infant where the sutures of the skull have not yet grown together.
fontanelles
The percentage of oxygen in inhaled air.
fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2)
A normal neural reflex elicited by touching the soft palate or posterior pharynx; the responses are symmetric elevation of the palate, retraction of the tongue, and contraction of the pharyngeal muscles.
gag reflex
Sensations monitored throughout the body by receptors scattered throughout many different tissues.
general senses
The arrangement of a person’s genes and their characteristics is based on the combination of alleles, for one gene or many.
genotype
A disease of the eye caused by an increase in intraocular pressure; when severe enough, this may damage the optic nerve and potentially cause permanent loss of vision.
glaucoma
Antibodies made by the liver or lymphatic tissues that make up around 36% of the plasma proteins.
globulins
The true vocal cords and the opening between them.
glottis
A process that stimulates both the liver and the kidneys to produce glucose from non carbohydrate molecules.
gluconogenesis
A long polymer from which glucose is converted in the liver (animal starch).
glycogen
The breakdown of glycogen to glucose.
glycogenolysis
Process by which glucose and other sugars are broken down to yield lactic acid (anaerobic glycolysis) or pyrrhic acid (aerobic glycolysis). The breakdown releases energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate.
glycolysis
Cells that carry genetic instructions via 23 individual chromosomes.
haploid cells
The anterior portion of the palate that is supported by bone (primarily the maxillary bone).
hard palate
