Chapter 8 Flashcards
1
Q
What is thinking?
A
Any mental activity or processing of information, including learning, remembering, perceiving, communicating, believing, and deciding
2
Q
What does it mean that our brains are cognitive misers?
A
Invest as little energy as possible in processing (cognitive economy)
3
Q
What is thin slicing?
A
Making quick judgments of people based on limited observation
4
Q
Define cognitive bias.
A
A systematic error in thinking
5
Q
What are heuristics?
A
Mental shortcuts to increase our thinking efficiency
6
Q
Name three types of heuristics.
A
- Representativeness heuristic
- Availability heuristic
- Hindsight bias
7
Q
What is the representativeness heuristic?
A
Judging the probability of an event by its superficial similarity to a prototype, ignoring base rate
8
Q
What is the availability heuristic?
A
Estimating the likelihood of an occurrence based on the ease with which it comes to our minds
9
Q
What is hindsight bias?
A
The tendency to overestimate how well we could have predicted something after it has already occurred
10
Q
What is top-down processing?
A
Streamlining cognitive functioning by utilizing pre-existing knowledge to fill in gaps
11
Q
What does the term ‘concept’ refer to?
A
Our knowledge and ideas about a set of objects, actions, and characteristics that share core properties
12
Q
What is linguistic determinism?
A
The view that we represent all thinking linguistically (extreme view)
13
Q
What is linguistic relativity?
A
The view that characteristics of language shape our thought processes
14
Q
What does the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis argue?
A
Language shapes some aspects of perception, memory, and thought
15
Q
What is decision-making?
A
The process of selecting among a set of possible alternatives
16
Q
What are System 1 and System 2 thinking?
A
System 1 is fast, automatic thinking, while System 2 is slower, more deliberate thinking
17
Q
What is ‘paralysis by analysis’?
A
Overanalyzing can overwhelm us when making decisions
18
Q
What is the impact of framing on decision-making?
A
Framing can impact decisions even when the underlying information is identical
19
Q
What is problem-solving?
A
Generating a cognitive strategy to accomplish a specific goal
20
Q
What are algorithms?
A
Series of defined steps that always get the right answer
21
Q
What is functional fixedness?
A
Difficulty conceptualizing that an object typically used for one purpose can be used for another
22
Q
What are phonemes?
A
Fundamental sounds in a language
23
Q
What are morphemes?
A
The smallest units of meaning in a language
24
Q
What is syntax?
A
The set of rules of a language by which we construct sentences
25
What is extralinguistic information?
Elements of communication that are not part of the content of language but are critical to interpreting its meaning
26
What is the 'less is more' theory?
Younger individuals learn a new language better due to less complex cognitive processing
27
What is the nativist perspective on language acquisition?
Children are born with some basic knowledge about how language works
28
What is the role of social pragmatics in language learning?
Specific aspects of the social environment structure language learning
29
What is the Stroop Effect?
A demonstration of the automatic process of reading that can interfere with color recognition
30
What are the four things that must be learned prior to reading?
* Writing is meaningful
* Writing moves in a specific direction
* Recognizing letters of the alphabet
* Printed letters correspond to specific sounds
31
What is speed reading?
Reading at a faster pace that often results in decreased comprehension
32
Fill in the blank: The smallest units of meaning in a language are called _______.
[morphemes]
33
True or False: Children can perform cognitive tasks before they can speak.
True
34
What does the social pragmatics account of language learning propose?
Children use social cues—like gestures, facial expressions, and actions—to infer word meanings
## Footnote
This account emphasizes the role of social interactions in language acquisition.
35
How do children learn the meaning of words according to social pragmatics?
By observing context in conversations, such as a parent pointing at a toy while saying a word
## Footnote
This process helps them associate words with objects.
36
What is a weakness of the social pragmatics theory?
It assumes children have advanced social understanding early on
## Footnote
Critics question whether infants can truly interpret others' thoughts and intentions.
37
What alternative explanation does the general cognitive processing account provide for language learning?
Language learning is processed through general learning abilities, like recognizing patterns and making associations
## Footnote
This suggests no need for a special 'language acquisition device' (LAD).
38
What is a challenge to the general cognitive processing theory?
Children learn language better than adults, despite adults being better learners overall
## Footnote
This indicates that language learning may involve specialized mechanisms.
39
Which brain area is specifically active in language processing?
The left temporal lobe
## Footnote
This suggests that language processing may not rely solely on general cognitive skills.
40
What type of communication do most nonhuman animals primarily engage in?
Sex and violence
## Footnote
This reflects the evolutionary purposes of communication in the animal kingdom.
41
What unique communication method do honeybees use?
The waggle dance
## Footnote
This dance conveys information about the direction and distance to a food source.
42
What type of alarm calls do vervet monkeys use?
Different calls for different predators
## Footnote
These calls represent specific meanings, making them similar to words.
43
What has been the outcome of attempts to teach chimpanzees human language?
Early attempts were unsuccessful due to their vocal apparatus limitations
## Footnote
Later efforts with sign language and lexigrams showed limited success.
44
What distinguishes bonobos in language learning from chimpanzees?
Bonobos learn better as young animals and through observation rather than direct reinforcement
## Footnote
Their learning path resembles human learning more closely.
45
What is a notable ability of the African gray parrot?
They can mimic sounds and use language in a humanlike manner
## Footnote
Some parrots exhibit understanding of concepts beyond mere mimicry.
46
What are the four concepts that must be learned prior to reading?
* Writing is meaningful
* Writing moves in a specific direction
* Recognizing letters of the alphabet
* Printed letters correspond to specific sounds
## Footnote
Mastery of these concepts is essential for developing reading skills.
47
What must be mastered to become an expert reader beyond initial concepts?
* Whole word recognition
* Phonetic decomposition
## Footnote
These skills are crucial for efficient reading.
48
What is the average reading speed of a student?
200-300 words per minute (WPM)
## Footnote
Reading above 400 WPM can lead to a drop in comprehension.
49
True or False: Speed reading courses help improve comprehension significantly.
False
## Footnote
They may increase speed but often reduce understanding.
50
What is cognitive economy?
Cognitive economy is a necessary aspect of our cognitive functioning that streamlines information processing.
## Footnote
It allows us to function effectively by simplifying complex information.
51
What are heuristics?
Heuristics are mental shortcuts that facilitate quick decision-making and problem-solving.
## Footnote
They are a key part of cognitive economy.
52
What is the representativeness heuristic?
A quick way of estimating the likelihood of an event based on past experience, which can lead to overgeneralizations.
## Footnote
This heuristic often fails to take base rates into account.
53
What is the availability heuristic?
The availability heuristic involves estimating the probability of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.
## Footnote
It can cause misjudgments about the actual frequency of events.
54
What is confirmation bias?
Confirmation bias is the tendency to overlook contradictory evidence and seek only information consistent with our expectations.
## Footnote
This can lead to flawed reasoning and decision-making.
55
What influences our decision-making?
Decision-making is influenced by heuristics, conscious analysis, and how decisions are framed.
## Footnote
Heuristics are used for quick decisions, while System 2 thinking is reserved for more complex choices.
56
What are algorithms in problem-solving?
Algorithms are step-by-step procedures for solving routine problems, but they tend to be inflexible.
## Footnote
They contrast with more flexible strategies like using analogies.
57
List three hurdles to effective problem solving.
* Being distracted by surface similarities
* Being stuck in a mental set
* Falling prey to functional fixedness
58
What does the embodied accounts of thinking suggest?
Embodied accounts suggest that our thinking and reasoning abilities are influenced by our physical interactions with the world.
## Footnote
Neuroimaging studies show that perceptual and motor areas of the brain are activated during thought.
59
What are the four levels of analysis in language?
* Phonemes
* Morphemes
* Syntax
* Extralinguistic information
60
What are morphemes?
Morphemes are the smallest units of language that convey meaning, known as semantics.
## Footnote
They play a crucial role in understanding language.
61
How does extralinguistic information affect language interpretation?
Extralinguistic information such as tone, facial expressions, gestures, and cultural cues influences how we interpret language.
## Footnote
These aspects provide context that is essential for understanding.
62
At what age do children typically acquire their first words?
Around their first birthday.
## Footnote
Children usually begin combining words into phrases by their second birthday.
63
What is the sensitive period in language acquisition?
The sensitive period is a time during which children learn languages more easily compared to adolescents and adults.
## Footnote
After this period, language acquisition becomes more challenging.
64
What are the pros of bilingualism?
* Stronger metalinguistic skills
* Protection against cognitive decline in old age
65
How does human language differ from nonhuman animal communication?
Human language is generative and complex, while nonhuman animal communication systems are limited and primarily involve aggression and mating displays.
## Footnote
Nonhuman animals typically lack the generative capacity of human language.
66
What are the skills required to learn to read?
* Phonemic awareness
* Whole word recognition
* Phonetic decomposition
67
What is phonemic awareness?
Phonemic awareness is the explicit awareness of individual sound components in spoken words.
## Footnote
It is a crucial prereading skill for becoming a proficient reader.
68
What is the relationship between reading speed and comprehension?
Reading faster than 400 words per minute seriously impairs text comprehension.
## Footnote
Speed-reading courses are generally ineffective for improving comprehension.
69
What is cognitive economy?
Cognitive economy is a necessary aspect of our cognitive functioning that streamlines information processing.
## Footnote
It allows us to function effectively by simplifying complex information.
70
What are heuristics?
Heuristics are mental shortcuts that facilitate quick decision-making and problem-solving.
## Footnote
They are a key part of cognitive economy.
71
What is the representativeness heuristic?
A quick way of estimating the likelihood of an event based on past experience, which can lead to overgeneralizations.
## Footnote
This heuristic often fails to take base rates into account.
72
What is the availability heuristic?
The availability heuristic involves estimating the probability of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.
## Footnote
It can cause misjudgments about the actual frequency of events.
73
What is confirmation bias?
Confirmation bias is the tendency to overlook contradictory evidence and seek only information consistent with our expectations.
## Footnote
This can lead to flawed reasoning and decision-making.
74
What influences our decision-making?
Decision-making is influenced by heuristics, conscious analysis, and how decisions are framed.
## Footnote
Heuristics are used for quick decisions, while System 2 thinking is reserved for more complex choices.
75
What are algorithms in problem-solving?
Algorithms are step-by-step procedures for solving routine problems, but they tend to be inflexible.
## Footnote
They contrast with more flexible strategies like using analogies.
76
List three hurdles to effective problem solving.
* Being distracted by surface similarities
* Being stuck in a mental set
* Falling prey to functional fixedness
77
What does the embodied accounts of thinking suggest?
Embodied accounts suggest that our thinking and reasoning abilities are influenced by our physical interactions with the world.
## Footnote
Neuroimaging studies show that perceptual and motor areas of the brain are activated during thought.
78
What are the four levels of analysis in language?
* Phonemes
* Morphemes
* Syntax
* Extralinguistic information
79
What are morphemes?
Morphemes are the smallest units of language that convey meaning, known as semantics.
## Footnote
They play a crucial role in understanding language.
80
How does extralinguistic information affect language interpretation?
Extralinguistic information such as tone, facial expressions, gestures, and cultural cues influences how we interpret language.
## Footnote
These aspects provide context that is essential for understanding.
81
At what age do children typically acquire their first words?
Around their first birthday.
## Footnote
Children usually begin combining words into phrases by their second birthday.
82
What is the sensitive period in language acquisition?
The sensitive period is a time during which children learn languages more easily compared to adolescents and adults.
## Footnote
After this period, language acquisition becomes more challenging.
83
What are the pros of bilingualism?
* Stronger metalinguistic skills
* Protection against cognitive decline in old age
84
How does human language differ from nonhuman animal communication?
Human language is generative and complex, while nonhuman animal communication systems are limited and primarily involve aggression and mating displays.
## Footnote
Nonhuman animals typically lack the generative capacity of human language.
85
What are the skills required to learn to read?
* Phonemic awareness
* Whole word recognition
* Phonetic decomposition
86
What is phonemic awareness?
Phonemic awareness is the explicit awareness of individual sound components in spoken words.
## Footnote
It is a crucial prereading skill for becoming a proficient reader.
87
What is the relationship between reading speed and comprehension?
Reading faster than 400 words per minute seriously impairs text comprehension.
## Footnote
Speed-reading courses are generally ineffective for improving comprehension.
88
Representative heuristic
-involves judging that probability of an event by its superficial similarity to a prototype
Ex: if we meet someone who is shy, awkward, and a tournament chess player we might guess that he’s more likely to be a computer science major than a communications major. If so, we were relied on representative heuristic because this person matched our stereotype of a computer science major.
89
Base rate
-fancy term for how common and behaviour or characteristic is in general
90
Availability heuristic
-hereustic that involves estimating the likelihood of an occurrence based on the ease with which it comes to our minds
-ignores base rate
91
Hindsight bias
“ I knew it all along effect”
-our tendency to overestimate how accurately we could have predicted something once we know the outcome
92
Top down processing
-streamline, cognitive functioning by utilizing pre-existing knowledge to fill in gaps
-Include use of concepts and schemas
-concepts refer to our knowledge and ideas about a set of objects, actions and characteristics that share core properties
Ex: we have concepts of the properties that all motorcycles share
-Schemas: concepts that we’ve stored in memory about how certain actions object, objects, and ideas relate to each other other, help us mentally organize events that share core features
Ex: going to a restaurant, cleaning the house (standard script)
93
Linguistic determinism
-Extreme view that we represent all thinking linguistically
Evidence suggests that this is not the case
-children can perform cognitive tasks before they can speak
-studies of brain activity while vocal chords are paralyzed
94
Linguistic relativity
-View in which characteristics of language shape, our thought processes
-Study suggest language shapes some aspects of perception, memory, and thought
-difficulty in separating language from cultural differences
95
Framing
-The way of questions formulated can influence the decisions people make
96
Obstacles to problem-solving
1. Salience or surface similarities: ignoring irrelevant surface details and focussing on meaningful details can be challenging
2. Mental sets: phenomenon of becoming stuck in a specific problem-solving strategy, inhibiting our ability to generate alternatives
Ex: when attempting to pick a topic for a term paper, we may have trouble thinking of topics. The professor hasn’t already covered in class. ironically, our friend who hasn’t taken, the class may be able to come up with more creative ideas because our thinking has become boxed in by our experiences.
3. Functional fixedness: difficulty conceptualizing that an object typically used for one purpose can be used for another.
Ex: you’re trying to hang a picture on the wall, but you don’t have a hammer, you have a wrench sitting nearby, but it never occurs to you to use it to pound in the nail because you’re fixated on the idea that our wrench is only turning bolts, not hammering
97
Language
-arbitrary system of communication that combine symbols such as words or just signs in rule based we used to create meaning
-It sounds words and sentences there no clear relation to their meaning. Ex: there’s nothing about the word dog that resembles a friendly furry animal that barks.
-allows for communication of information as well as social and emotional functions
98
Features of language
-phoneme: fundamental sounds
-morphemes: smallest meaningful unit of speech
-most of our morphemes are words such as cat and happy
-more themes convey information about semantics: meaning derived from words in sentences
Words like re as in to do again, ish meaning to a moderate degree are also morphemes (can be four words like dog or modifiers like re
-syntax: grammatical rules by which sentences are put together
Ex: I ate pizza for dinner
Also includes morphological markers, which are morphine that changed the meaning of a word, but based on grammatical rule ( ing, ed)
-extra linguistic information: elements of communication that aren’t part of the content of language, but are critical to interpreting its meaning (facial expressions, tone of voice)
99
Children learning language
-children recognize words long before they’re able to say them
100
Metalinguistic insight
-bilingual children because of the process of figuring out how to languages are structured than used, they tend to perform better on language tasks in general
-same brain areas used if second language is learned early but different areas used if language is learned a leader in development
101
Accounts of language acquisition
-language is generative: it’s a system that allows us to create an infinite number of sentences, producing new statement, thoughts and ideas
Strongest nature of view is a nativist account: account of language acquisition that suggest children are born with some basic knowledge of how language works. Chomsky hypothesis that humans possess a specific language organ in the brain called the language acquisition device and argued. It comes pre-programmed to enable children to use language.
-difficult to falsify
-social pragmatic account: proposes that children infer what words and sentences mean from context and social interactions, specific aspects of the social environment structural language learning. Requires assuming that infants have insights to others thoughts?
Imitation: suggests babies care language, used in systematic ways and learn to use language as adults use it
-does not account for generative nature of language
General cognitive processing : says that ability to learn language results from general skills children apply across a variety of activities. However, children learn language better than adults, even though adults are overall better at learning things.
102
Non-human animal communication
-most communication is geared towards mating and aggression
The honeybee wiggle dance communicates to their fellow bees about the location of a food source. It’s an example of non-human communication.
-alarm calls by Verette monkeys that have different types of alarms when they see different types of predators
103
One word stage
-early language development stage around 12 months old were toddlers speak using single words to represent entire ideas (milk) meaning I want milk
Critical period; narrow window of time in development when certain skills must be acquired or they may never develop properly
-how sign language is similar to spoken language: activate similar areas of the brain, exhibits all features of a spoken language it’s not just simply gesturing
Developmental stages are the same in spoken and sign language languages
Deaf babies Bible with their hands
104
Whole word recognition
-how words look on a page
105
Phonetic decomposition
-how to sound out unfamiliar words
-like language reading becomes an automatic process. We can’t turn it off even if we want to.
106
Stoop affect
-Demonstrates how reading is automatic: has a list of colours that don’t correspond to the colour Ex: the word red might be written in yellow ink
