CHAPTER 8 Flashcards
Encoding
input of information into memory system
Storage
retention of the encoded information
Retrieval
getting the information out of memory and
back into awareness
Semantic encoding
encoding of words and their meaning
* First demonstrated by William Bousfield (1935)
* Asked people to memorize 60 words divided into 4
categories
* Words were randomly presented
* When asked to remember words, recalled them in
categories
* Attended to meanings of words as learned them
Visual encoding
encoding of images
Acoustic encoding
encoding of sounds, typically language
Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory
information passes through
three distinct stages for storage in long-term memory (LTM)
Sensory input
Sensory Memory
Short-term memory
Rehearsal
Long-term memory
Automatic processing
–information is processed and stored
with little effort ; usually done without conscious awareness
Effortful processing (controlled processing)
requires a lot of
work and attention to encode that information ; e.g., studying
Automaticity / Proceduralization – `
the process of
converting effortful / controlled processing tasks into
automatic processing tasks
e.g., learn new skills such as driving a car or typing
Short-term memory (STM)
- temporary storage system that
processes incoming sensory memory
→ receives information from sensory memory
connects new information to existing long-term memory
Memory consolidation
move STM into long-term memory
Explicit memory
What we know that we know
Implicit memory
What we don’t know that we know
Retrieval
getting information out of
memory storage (LTM) and into conscious
awareness
engram
group of neurons that serve as “physical
representation of memory”
Equipotentiality hypothesis
if part of one area of the brain involved in memory is damaged, another part of the same area can
take over that memory function
Where is Memory Located?
Amygdala - fear and fear memories (emotional memories)
Hippocampus – declarative, episodic, and recognition memory;
projects information to cortical regions that give memories meaning
and connects them with other memories; memory consolidation:
transferring new learning into long-term memory
Cerebellum - procedural memories, such as playing piano
Prefrontal cortex - remembering semantic tasks ; STM
Neurotransmitters involved with
memory
epinephrine, dopamine,
serotonin, glutamate, and
acetylcholine
Memory consolidation occurs
through repeated activity by
neurons → repeated use means
less activation is needed for
same response
Arousal theory:
- Strong emotional experiences
form strong memories - Weaker emotional experiences
form weaker memories
Stress causes brain to secrete more
glutamate → helps remember
stressful event
Prefrontal cortex
How we process and retain information
Suggestibility
misinformation
from external sources that leads
to the creation of false memories
misinformation effect paradigm
after exposure to additional and possibly inaccurate information, a person may misremember the original event
Repression
unconscious forgetting of
traumatic memories; began with Freud ; controversial
Encoding Failure
-Sometimes
memory loss happens before the actual memory process begins
Cannot store and recall something we never encoded
Stereotypical bias
involves racial and gender biases.
Egocentric bias
involves enhancing our memories of the past.
- People remember events in a way that makes them look better.
Hindsight bias
the tendency to think an outcome was
inevitable after the fact.
- Thinking you knew it all along
Proactive interference:
when old information hinders
the recall of newly learned
information
Retroactive interference
when information learned
more recently hinders the
recall of older information
