Chapter 8

Question 1

Memory

Answer 1

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Question 2

Recall

Answer 2

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank-test.

Question 3

Recognition

Answer 3

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. Human recognition is impressively quick and vast.

Question 4

Relearning

Answer 4

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

Question 5

Steps of Processing Memory

Answer 5

1. Encode
2. Store
3. Retrieve

Question 6

Encode

Answer 6

the process of getting information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

Question 7

Store

Answer 7

the process of retaining encoded information over time.

Question 8

Retrieve

Answer 8

the process of getting information out of memory storage.

Question 9

Sensory Memory

Answer 9

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. We first record this to be remembered information.

Question 10

Iconic Memory

Answer 10

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no longer than a few tenths of a second.

Question 11

Echoic Memory

Answer 11

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3-4 seconds.

Question 12

Short-Term Memory

Answer 12

briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten. Information is processed into short-term memory from sensory memory, and we encode it through rehearsal.

Question 13

Long-Term Memory

Answer 13

the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. Information moves here from short-term memory for later retrieval.

Question 14

Working Memory

Answer 14

a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both incoming sensory information, and information retrieved from long-term memory.

Question 15

Effortful Processing

Answer 15

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Question 16

Explicit Memory

Answer 16

retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare” (also called declarative memory). Encoded through effortful processing.

Question 17

Sematic Memory

Answer 17

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other being episodic memory).

Question 18

Episodic Memory

Answer 18

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other being sematic memory).

Question 19

Automatic Processing

Answer 19

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings.

Question 20

Implicit Memory

Answer 20

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative memory). Produced by automatic processing.

Question 21

Examples of Implicit Memories

Answer 21

Space: when you want to retrieve information about a certain material, you may visualize its location (ex. seashell).

Time: The brain unintentionally notes the sequence of the day’s events, enabling you to retrace your steps if need be.

Frequency: The brain effortlessly keeps track of how many times things happen, causing the realization of seeing someone multiple times a day.

Question 22

Chunking

Answer 22

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Question 23

Mnemomics

Answer 23

memory aids; especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Question 24

Hiearchies

Answer 24

subdivisions can help you remember things and their relationships.

Question 25

Spacing Effect

Answer 25

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

Question 26

Testing Effect

Answer 26

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also, sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

Question 27

Shallow Processing

Answer 27

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.

Question 28

Deep Processing

Answer 28

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.

Question 29

Memory Storage

Answer 29

Brain networks encode, store, and retrieve the information that forms our complex memories. Our capacity for storing long-term memories is limitless.

Question 30

The Explicit Memory System Structures

Answer 30

Frontal Lobe and Hippocampus

Question 31

Frontal Lobes in Explicit Memory

Answer 31

Left frontal lobe processes sematic memories while right frontal lobe processes episodic memories.

Question 32

Hippocampus in Explicit Memory

Answer 32

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories—of facts and events—for storage. Damage to the hippocampus will disrupt the formation and recall of explicit memories (left - verbal, right- visual). Memories are not permanently stored in the hippocampus; it acts as a loading dock where the brain registers and temporarily holds the elements of a to-be remembered episode.

Question 33

Memory Consolidation

Answer 33

the neural storage of a long-term memory.

Question 34

The Implicit Memory System Structures

Answer 34

Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia

Question 35

Cerebellum in Implicit Memory

Answer 35

The cerebellum plays a key role in forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning.

Question 36

Basal Ganglia in Implicit Memory

Answer 36

The basal ganglia, deep brain structures involved in motor movement, facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills.

Question 37

Emotional Effects on Memory

Answer 37

When excited or stressed, stress hormones make glucose energy available to fuel brain activity, signaling that something important is happening. The amygdala (two limbic system, emotion processing clusters) is provoked by stress hormones to initiate a memory trace. Emotional arousal can sear certain events into the brain while disrupting memory for irrelevant events.

Question 38

Flashbulb Memory

Answer 38

A clear memory of an emotionally significant event or moment. Over time, we can recall these with errors.

Question 39

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Answer 39

an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory. This can help built synaptic connections to make memories stronger. After LTP has occurred, passing an electric current through the brain will wipe out very recent memories, but not old ones. A blow to the head can do the same.

Question 40

Memory Retrieval

Answer 40

Memory retrieval is essentially following a route based on retrieval clues to uncover the suspended memory. The more retrieval clues you have, the better your chances are of remembering something. We need to retrieve memories for our past (retrospective memory) and our intended future actions (prospective memory).

Question 41

Priming

Answer 41

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. This can predispose interpretations and influence behaviors.

Question 42

Encoding Specificity Principle

Answer 42

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it.

Question 43

Mood-Congruent Memory

Answer 43

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s good or bad mood. What we learn in one state of being (drunk vs. sober) may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state.

Question 44

Serial Position Effect

Answer 44

our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list.

Question 45

Why Forgetting is Good

Answer 45

If we couldn’t forget, our minds would be filled with useless information and we would have trouble generalizing, organizing, and evaluating. We could end up in an endless cycle of remembering things that trigger other memories. It would be exhausting and take away from our brain’s true power.

Question 46

Anterograde Amnesia

Answer 46

an inability to form new memories. Far more common.

Question 47

Retrograde Amnesia

Answer 47

an inability to remember information from one’s past. Much less common.

Question 48

Why We Forget

Answer 48

1. Encoding Failure
   a. Literally an error during the encoding process that causes information not to be encoded. This could be caused by old age, attention, or effort.
2. Storage Decay
   a. Memories can decay once in long-term storage due to a lack of use or fading of a memory trace. The forgetting curve shows that after a while, forgetting levels off.
3. Retrieval Failure
   a. An error in the retrieval of a memory, leading us to not be able to access the memory. Retrieval problems usually stem from interference.

Question 49

Proactive Interference

Answer 49

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information.

Ex. You may remember the combination of your old code instead of your new code.

Question 50

Retroactive Interference

Answer 50

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information.

Ex. You may remember parody lyrics to a song instead of the original lyrics.

Question 51

Repression

Answer 51

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. THIS IS FALSE!

Question 52

Reconsolidation

Answer 52

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again.

Question 53

Misinformation Effect

Answer 53

Occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information.

Ex. Asking if there was broken glass near a smashed car rather than a broken car.

Question 54

Other Causes of False Memories

Answer 54

Repeatedly imagining nonexistent actions and events can create false memories. This occurs because visualizing something and experiencing something stimulate similar areas of the brain.

Question 55

Source Amnesia

Answer 55

Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (also called source misattribution). Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

Question 56

Déjà Vu

Answer 56

that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

Question 57

Discerning True and False Memory

Answer 57

Since the misinformation effect and source amnesia happen outside our awareness, it is hard to separate false memories from real ones. Children are even more susceptible to the misinformation effect.