Chapter 8 Flashcards
Memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
Recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank-test.
Recognition
a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. Human recognition is impressively quick and vast.
Relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.
Steps of Processing Memory
- Encode
- Store
- Retrieve
Encode
the process of getting information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
Store
the process of retaining encoded information over time.
Retrieve
the process of getting information out of memory storage.
Sensory Memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. We first record this to be remembered information.
Iconic Memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no longer than a few tenths of a second.
Echoic Memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3-4 seconds.
Short-Term Memory
briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten. Information is processed into short-term memory from sensory memory, and we encode it through rehearsal.
Long-Term Memory
the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. Information moves here from short-term memory for later retrieval.
Working Memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both incoming sensory information, and information retrieved from long-term memory.
Effortful Processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
Explicit Memory
retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare” (also called declarative memory). Encoded through effortful processing.
Sematic Memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other being episodic memory).
Episodic Memory
explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other being sematic memory).
Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings.
Implicit Memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative memory). Produced by automatic processing.
Examples of Implicit Memories
Space: when you want to retrieve information about a certain material, you may visualize its location (ex. seashell).
Time: The brain unintentionally notes the sequence of the day’s events, enabling you to retrace your steps if need be.
Frequency: The brain effortlessly keeps track of how many times things happen, causing the realization of seeing someone multiple times a day.
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
Mnemomics
memory aids; especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
Hiearchies
subdivisions can help you remember things and their relationships.
Spacing Effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
Testing Effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also, sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
Shallow Processing
encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.
Deep Processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.
Memory Storage
Brain networks encode, store, and retrieve the information that forms our complex memories. Our capacity for storing long-term memories is limitless.
The Explicit Memory System Structures
Frontal Lobe and Hippocampus
Frontal Lobes in Explicit Memory
Left frontal lobe processes sematic memories while right frontal lobe processes episodic memories.
Hippocampus in Explicit Memory
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories—of facts and events—for storage. Damage to the hippocampus will disrupt the formation and recall of explicit memories (left - verbal, right- visual). Memories are not permanently stored in the hippocampus; it acts as a loading dock where the brain registers and temporarily holds the elements of a to-be remembered episode.
Memory Consolidation
the neural storage of a long-term memory.
The Implicit Memory System Structures
Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia
Cerebellum in Implicit Memory
The cerebellum plays a key role in forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning.
Basal Ganglia in Implicit Memory
The basal ganglia, deep brain structures involved in motor movement, facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills.
Emotional Effects on Memory
When excited or stressed, stress hormones make glucose energy available to fuel brain activity, signaling that something important is happening. The amygdala (two limbic system, emotion processing clusters) is provoked by stress hormones to initiate a memory trace. Emotional arousal can sear certain events into the brain while disrupting memory for irrelevant events.
Flashbulb Memory
A clear memory of an emotionally significant event or moment. Over time, we can recall these with errors.
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory. This can help built synaptic connections to make memories stronger. After LTP has occurred, passing an electric current through the brain will wipe out very recent memories, but not old ones. A blow to the head can do the same.
Memory Retrieval
Memory retrieval is essentially following a route based on retrieval clues to uncover the suspended memory. The more retrieval clues you have, the better your chances are of remembering something. We need to retrieve memories for our past (retrospective memory) and our intended future actions (prospective memory).
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. This can predispose interpretations and influence behaviors.
Encoding Specificity Principle
the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it.
Mood-Congruent Memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s good or bad mood. What we learn in one state of being (drunk vs. sober) may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state.
Serial Position Effect
our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list.
Why Forgetting is Good
If we couldn’t forget, our minds would be filled with useless information and we would have trouble generalizing, organizing, and evaluating. We could end up in an endless cycle of remembering things that trigger other memories. It would be exhausting and take away from our brain’s true power.
Anterograde Amnesia
an inability to form new memories. Far more common.
Retrograde Amnesia
an inability to remember information from one’s past. Much less common.
Why We Forget
- Encoding Failure
a. Literally an error during the encoding process that causes information not to be encoded. This could be caused by old age, attention, or effort. - Storage Decay
a. Memories can decay once in long-term storage due to a lack of use or fading of a memory trace. The forgetting curve shows that after a while, forgetting levels off. - Retrieval Failure
a. An error in the retrieval of a memory, leading us to not be able to access the memory. Retrieval problems usually stem from interference.
Proactive Interference
the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information.
Ex. You may remember the combination of your old code instead of your new code.
Retroactive Interference
the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information.
Ex. You may remember parody lyrics to a song instead of the original lyrics.
Repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. THIS IS FALSE!
Reconsolidation
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again.
Misinformation Effect
Occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information.
Ex. Asking if there was broken glass near a smashed car rather than a broken car.
Other Causes of False Memories
Repeatedly imagining nonexistent actions and events can create false memories. This occurs because visualizing something and experiencing something stimulate similar areas of the brain.
Source Amnesia
Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (also called source misattribution). Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.
Déjà Vu
that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
Discerning True and False Memory
Since the misinformation effect and source amnesia happen outside our awareness, it is hard to separate false memories from real ones. Children are even more susceptible to the misinformation effect.
