Chapter 7 Flashcards
Learning
the process of acquiring through experiencing new and relatively enduring information or behaviors. We learn by associating certain sensory stimuli with feelings/behaviors.
Associative Learning
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).
Stimulus
any event or situation that evokes a response.
Respondent Behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus (associating stimuli that we do not control and responding automatically, as in classical conditioning).
Operant Behavior
behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence (as in operant conditioning).
Cognitive Learning
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language. Another form of learning.
Classical Conditioning
A type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food). Can occur simultaneously with Operant Conditioning.
Behaviorism
a view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with the first park, but not the second part.
Neutral Stimuli (NS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.
Unconditioned Response (UR)
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR).
Conditional Response (CR)
in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).
Acquisition
in classical conditioning, the initial stage—when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditional stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response (in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response).
Higher-Order Conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone (also called second-order conditioning).
Extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
Spontaneous Recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. This suggests that extinction suppresses the CR rather than eliminating it.
Generalization
(also called stimulus generalization) in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli like the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situation).
Discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and a similar stimulus that do not signal an unconditional stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced).
Pavlov’s Legacy
Pavlov’s theories are now backed up by neuroscience. Some of his ideas were incomplete, but he created a solid base as to how learning occurs. Pavlov’s work has shown a common way that all species learn. Showed a way that learning can be studied objectively.
Applications of Classical Conditioning
- Drug Cravings
a. Breaking the association between a drug-using context and a drug’s reward may help to treat substance use disorder. - Food Cravings
a. Food cravings can essentially come from a conditioned response in which people associate sweet feelings with sweet foods. - Immune Responses
a. When a particular taste accompanies a drug that influences immune responses, the taste by itself may come to produce an immune response.
Operant Conditioning
a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.
Law of Effect
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
Operant Chamber
in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or a key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
Reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
Shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Positive Reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens a response.
Negative Reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. This is NOT punishment. Think as something that provides relief.
Primary Reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. Unlearned, such as getting food when hungry.
Conditioned Reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (also known as a secondary reinforcer). Learned, such as the light that causes food to be delivered to a rat. The rat will work to turn on this light because of its association with food.
Delay
Immediate feedback produces immediate learning. Humans can respond to delayed reinforcers, also known as delayed gratification.
Reinforcement Schedule
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. Both learning and extinction will occur rapidly.
Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
Ex. Chore calendar (5 chores=prize)
Variable-Ratio Schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
Ex. Slot machines
Fixed-Interval Schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
Ex. Checking for mail more frequently as the delivery day gets closer.
Variable-Interval Schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
Ex. Finally receiving a long awaited for text.
Punishment
an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.
Positive Punishment
Administers an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior.
Negative Punishment
Withdrawals a rewarding stimulus to decrease behavior.
Punishment Effects on Behavior
- Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten. This temporary state may (negatively) reinforce parents’ punishing behavior. This causes children to only withhold behavior around parents.
- Physical punishment does not provide direction for unwanted behaviors.
- Punishment teaches discrimination among situations.
- Punishment can teach fear.
- Physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling violence to cope with problems.
Preferred Punishment Styles
- Time-out from positive reinforcement.
- Many threats of punishment are just as effective when phrased positively.
o Ex. “You clean up your room this minute or no dinner” … “You’re welcome at the dinner table once your room is cleaned.”
Skinner’s Legacy
- Critics told him that he dehumanized people by neglecting their personal freedom and by seeking to control their actions.
- Skinner believed that since external consequences already control behavior, we can administer these consequences towards human betterment.
Applications of Operant Conditioning
- At School, by immediately reinforcing correct responses, we can encourage fast learning.
- In Sports by first reinforcing small successes and then gradually increasing the challenge.
- In Computer Programs by enabling them to quickly learn to repeat reinforced actions and avoid punished responses.
- At Work by motivating employees by making reinforcement immediate, reward specific and achievable behaviors.
- In Parenting by noticing good behavior and affirming it, instead of punishing bad behavior to avoid a destructive child-parent relationship.
Biological Influence on Classical Conditioning
Preparedness: a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value. This constrains what stimuli and responses can easily be associated.
Biological Influence on Operant Conditioning
Instinctive Drift: the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.
Cognitive Influences on Classical Conditioning
Organisms develop an expectation that a CS signals the arrival of a US.
Cognitive Influences on Operant Conditioning
Organisms develop an expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished; they also exhibit latent learning (learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it), without reinforcement.
Observational Learning
learning by observing others.
Modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
Mirror Neurons
frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another action may enable imitation and empathy.
Prosocial Behaviors
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
Effects of Observational Learning
- Pro-socially, we can do good and have others mimic it.
- Antisocially, we are more likely to follow negative behaviors observed as children.
