Chapter 7

Question 1

Learning

Answer 1

the process of acquiring through experiencing new and relatively enduring information or behaviors. We learn by associating certain sensory stimuli with feelings/behaviors.

Question 2

Associative Learning

Answer 2

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).

Question 3

Stimulus

Answer 3

any event or situation that evokes a response.

Question 4

Respondent Behavior

Answer 4

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus (associating stimuli that we do not control and responding automatically, as in classical conditioning).

Question 5

Operant Behavior

Answer 5

behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence (as in operant conditioning).

Question 6

Cognitive Learning

Answer 6

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language. Another form of learning.

Question 7

Classical Conditioning

Answer 7

A type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food). Can occur simultaneously with Operant Conditioning.

Question 8

Behaviorism

Answer 8

a view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with the first park, but not the second part.

Question 9

Neutral Stimuli (NS)

Answer 9

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Question 10

Unconditioned Response (UR)

Answer 10

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).

Question 11

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Answer 11

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR).

Question 12

Conditional Response (CR)

Answer 12

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

Question 13

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Answer 13

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

Question 14

Acquisition

Answer 14

in classical conditioning, the initial stage—when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditional stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response (in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response).

Question 15

Higher-Order Conditioning

Answer 15

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone (also called second-order conditioning).

Question 16

Extinction

Answer 16

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Question 17

Spontaneous Recovery

Answer 17

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. This suggests that extinction suppresses the CR rather than eliminating it.

Question 18

Generalization

Answer 18

(also called stimulus generalization) in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli like the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situation).

Question 19

Discrimination

Answer 19

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and a similar stimulus that do not signal an unconditional stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced).

Question 20

Pavlov’s Legacy

Answer 20

Pavlov’s theories are now backed up by neuroscience. Some of his ideas were incomplete, but he created a solid base as to how learning occurs. Pavlov’s work has shown a common way that all species learn. Showed a way that learning can be studied objectively.

Question 21

Applications of Classical Conditioning

Answer 21

1. Drug Cravings
   a. Breaking the association between a drug-using context and a drug’s reward may help to treat substance use disorder.
2. Food Cravings
   a. Food cravings can essentially come from a conditioned response in which people associate sweet feelings with sweet foods.
3. Immune Responses
   a. When a particular taste accompanies a drug that influences immune responses, the taste by itself may come to produce an immune response.

Question 22

Operant Conditioning

Answer 22

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.

Question 23

Law of Effect

Answer 23

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Question 24

Operant Chamber

Answer 24

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or a key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Question 25

Reinforcement

Answer 25

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Question 26

Shaping

Answer 26

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Question 27

Positive Reinforcement

Answer 27

increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens a response.

Question 28

Negative Reinforcement

Answer 28

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. This is NOT punishment. Think as something that provides relief.

Question 29

Primary Reinforcer

Answer 29

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. Unlearned, such as getting food when hungry.

Question 30

Conditioned Reinforcer

Answer 30

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (also known as a secondary reinforcer). Learned, such as the light that causes food to be delivered to a rat. The rat will work to turn on this light because of its association with food.

Question 31

Delay

Answer 31

Immediate feedback produces immediate learning. Humans can respond to delayed reinforcers, also known as delayed gratification.

Question 32

Reinforcement Schedule

Answer 32

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Question 33

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

Answer 33

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. Both learning and extinction will occur rapidly.

Question 34

Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule

Answer 34

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Question 35

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Answer 35

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Ex. Chore calendar (5 chores=prize)

Question 36

Variable-Ratio Schedule

Answer 36

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Ex. Slot machines

Question 37

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Answer 37

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Ex. Checking for mail more frequently as the delivery day gets closer.

Question 38

Variable-Interval Schedule

Answer 38

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Ex. Finally receiving a long awaited for text.

Question 39

Punishment

Answer 39

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

Question 40

Positive Punishment

Answer 40

Administers an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior.

Question 41

Negative Punishment

Answer 41

Withdrawals a rewarding stimulus to decrease behavior.

Question 42

Punishment Effects on Behavior

Answer 42

• Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten. This temporary state may (negatively) reinforce parents’ punishing behavior. This causes children to only withhold behavior around parents.
• Physical punishment does not provide direction for unwanted behaviors.
• Punishment teaches discrimination among situations.
• Punishment can teach fear.
• Physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling violence to cope with problems.

Question 43

Preferred Punishment Styles

Answer 43

• Time-out from positive reinforcement.
• Many threats of punishment are just as effective when phrased positively.
  o Ex. “You clean up your room this minute or no dinner” … “You’re welcome at the dinner table once your room is cleaned.”

Question 44

Skinner’s Legacy

Answer 44

• Critics told him that he dehumanized people by neglecting their personal freedom and by seeking to control their actions.
• Skinner believed that since external consequences already control behavior, we can administer these consequences towards human betterment.

Question 45

Applications of Operant Conditioning

Answer 45

• At School, by immediately reinforcing correct responses, we can encourage fast learning.
• In Sports by first reinforcing small successes and then gradually increasing the challenge.
• In Computer Programs by enabling them to quickly learn to repeat reinforced actions and avoid punished responses.
• At Work by motivating employees by making reinforcement immediate, reward specific and achievable behaviors.
• In Parenting by noticing good behavior and affirming it, instead of punishing bad behavior to avoid a destructive child-parent relationship.

Question 46

Biological Influence on Classical Conditioning

Answer 46

Preparedness: a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value. This constrains what stimuli and responses can easily be associated.

Question 47

Biological Influence on Operant Conditioning

Answer 47

Instinctive Drift: the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.

Question 48

Cognitive Influences on Classical Conditioning

Answer 48

Organisms develop an expectation that a CS signals the arrival of a US.

Question 49

Cognitive Influences on Operant Conditioning

Answer 49

Organisms develop an expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished; they also exhibit latent learning (learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it), without reinforcement.

Question 50

Observational Learning

Answer 50

learning by observing others.

Question 51

Modeling

Answer 51

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Question 52

Mirror Neurons

Answer 52

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another action may enable imitation and empathy.

Question 53

Prosocial Behaviors

Answer 53

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

Question 54

Effects of Observational Learning

Answer 54

• Pro-socially, we can do good and have others mimic it.
• Antisocially, we are more likely to follow negative behaviors observed as children.