chapter 8

Question 1

Reflex

Answer 1

Certain behavioural response to certain stimulus

Question 2

How can a reflex change through habituation ?

Answer 2

It can change as a result of repeated sequence of identical stimuli → the response of the
Central nervous system to the stimuli gets weaker by every sequence

Question 3

How did Pavlov discover the conditioned response ?

Answer 3

Studied the reflexes involved in the canine digestion system. Discovery that dogs salivated differently to different winds of food. → some dogs salivated before receiving any foods. → response could be studied within the physiological realm.

Question 4

How did he systematic the process of conditioning and what names did he give to thei relevant stimuli and responses?

Answer 4

Systematised the conditioning process by introducing a stimuli - a bell- along with the food given to the dog. Before, the bell was a neutral stimuli. Food was an unconditioned stimulus and salivation was an unconditioned response. After pairing, bell became conditioned stimulus and salivation became conditioned response.

Question 5

How does the cognitive construct of expectancy help explain the ways in which conditioned responses differ from unconditioned responses?

Answer 5

Expectancy theory argues that subjects are conditioned to display certain behaviours which they seem suitable for the situation rather than blankly exhibiting a single trait to a conditioned stimuli. They mentally prepare them silver for the upcoming event by the behaviour displayed besides the conditioned response itself.

Question 6

Three conditions in which the pairing of a new stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus does not result in classical conditioning?

Answer 6

① conditioned stimulus must precede the unconditioned stimulus for the subject to exhibit a conditioned response. ② conditioned stimulus must indicate the heightened probability of an unconditioned stimulus. ③ subject will not be conditioned if it already has a predictor that is superior to the new stimuhs. → animal has to learn that it can rely on the conditioned stimuli in order to expect the unconditioned stimuli

Question 7

How did Watson demonstrate that the emotion of fear can be conditioned?

Answer 7

Little albert→ Albert was conditioned to expect a loud sound when ever a rat was placed in front of him; further pairings showed us that he was also terrified of other furry animals placed in front of him generalisations

Question 8

Appetites effect and sudden craving for specific food beexplained in terms of classical conditioning?

Answer 8

Various sensory stimuli preceding food can condition us to feel hungry as a conditioned response to the same stimuli that have become conditioned stimuli.

Question 9

Sexual arousal → conditioned in humans and other animals ? Evidence from experiments with nan human animals that such conditioning promotes success in reproduction

Answer 9

Various stimuli paired with sexual carousel have rendered subjects more readily available for copulation. -Male quails have been observed to have higher sperm count after being subjected to an unconditioned stimuli:

Question 10

Why is conditioned response to a drug- related stimulus often the opposite of the direct effect of the drug?

Answer 10

Body gives a reflexive conditioned response to a drug-related. Stimuli to suppress the effects of the drug and turn the body to its normal state.

Question 11

What is the westermarch effect, what evidence is there that it is based an early cohabitation?

Answer 11

Sexual aversion of genetic relatives or people that have been raised together. People that don’t have any genetic relations but are raised together often have no incidences of sexual attraction a intercourse; whereas people that have geneticrelations but are separated when they are very young and meet as adults often report a strong sexual attraction towards each other.
Y

Question 12

What is some evidence that people and monkeys are biologically predisposed to learn to fear some things more easily than other things?

Answer 12

Monkeys, raised in labs and never encountered a snake before initially do not exhibit any fearful reactions; however when they see another money react fearfully to a snake they immediately exhibit these fearful reactions too. This condition does not apply to safe er neutral objects. Humans (infants) exhibit more or less the same traits towards stimuli that evolutionarily been deemed dangerous or unsafe.

Question 13

In sum what has natural selection imparted to young omnivores about food selection?

Answer 13

It would be safely to eat what the adults eat since they have probably eaten it before and they are still alive. Remembering the taste and smell of a food would be smart too since it can be associated with an increase or decrease in health and therefore be preferred or avoided

Question 14

How do rats and pega he learn food preferences by attending to others of their kind?

Answer 14

By smelling each other’s mouth and preferring the food that has been eaten by the demonstrator. Humans, especially human infants, are much more likely to try a food if they have seen an adult try it first.

Question 15

How has food-preference learning been demonstrated in humans?

Answer 15

When presented with a choice of foods from which one was rich in calories, many subjects initially enjoyed both equally; but l in the upcoming the day approval of calorie-rich food increased whereas that of the other either decreased or hasn’t changed.

Question 16

What is evidence that chimpanzees transmit cultural traditions from generation to generation?

Answer 16

In some isolated groups of chimpanzees various traits concerning tool designs, mating and food have been observed and these traits are seemingly distinct to these specific groups

Question 17

How does exploration differ from play in its evolutionary function?

Answer 17

Exploration serves to lean about the environmental conditions and what it has to offer, whereas plays strengthens
Internal functions. Animals that don’t engage much in play still have to explore their environment

Question 18

How do we know that generalization in classical conditioning can be based on the meaning of a stimulus, not just on it’s physical characteristics?

Answer 18

When they are conditioned to salivate to words, they salivate more to stimuli that share similar personal interpretations-meanings - rather than physical characteristics.

Question 19

je

Answer 19

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Question 20

WATSON’s s-r-theory

Answer 20

Argues that unconditioned and conditioned stimuli directly react and connect to create a certain response

Question 21

Pavlov’s s-s-theory

Answer 21

Suggested that the conditioned stimuli created a mental representation of the unconditioned stimulus which in turn gave a response.

Question 22

Why is it dangerous for a drug a addict to take his order usual drug dose in unusual an environment?

Answer 22

Environmental cues can allow the body to start the countreractive system and enable it to gradually tale in more drugs, increasing tolerance of the body. When environmental cues is absent, the large load of drugs can wich in before the body starts the counter active process→ injurious or fatal.

Question 23

Now can classical conditions help explain drug relapse after an addict returns home from a treatment Center?

Answer 23

When the same environmental cues back home that have been associated with drug abuse, it may trigger the same conditioned processes that counteract the drug in the body, causing a desire for the abused drug.

Question 24

Differ negative & positive reinforcement

Answer 24

Negative reinforcement occurs when the removal of a stimulus males the operant responses more likely to occur. Positive reinforcement occurs when the arrival of a stimulus males the operant response more likely to occur. Difference: stimulus appears or disappears as a result of operant response.

Question 25

Difference exploration from play in its evolutionary functions?

Answer 25

Exploration: serves to learn about the environmental conditions and what it has to offer. Play: strengthens internal functions.

Question 26

Fowl’s ability to recognis its mother - learning-?

Answer 26

Can recognis its mother from the head and the sound. - able to distinguish between other organisms and their mother.
If there’s only one option: that’s the mother then - researcher- process is inborn and not learn - called imprinting (after they have registered one as their mother, they will follow it wherever is goes)

Question 27

Thondike’s law of effect?

Answer 27

It suggests that actions that have positive effects are in a situation will likely be repeated more in the same situation over those that have negative effects in a situation are less likely to occur again in the same situation

Question 28

Different between skinner’s method and - Thorncline’s ? Why did he prefer reinforcement over satisfaction?

Answer 28

Skinner did not expect are action from the subject, he placed them in a mechanism that would allow the subject to decide whenever they want to take an action, if they pressed the b utt on they would get water or food → over time the action of pressing the button to get food or water would be reinforced. Frequency and rate can be easily measured. Preferred the term reinforcement, because term “satisfaction” suggested a mental process of liking which was against behaviourist view

Question 29

Fixed ratio schedules

Answer 29

Reward an nth response, where n is the number of operant responses and is a whole number larger than one such rewarding every fifth action.

Question 30

Variable -ratio schedules

Answer 30

Award a response of a sequence of responses that average a certain number, such l as third or seventh for a variable - five schedule.

Question 31

Fixed- interval schedules

Answer 31

Award every response that has around a certain amount of time in between

Question 32

Ratio schedules

Answer 32

Depend on the speed action of the subject

Question 33

Interval schedules

Answer 33

Depend on a certain amount of time

Question 34

Difference negative reinforcement / positive reinforcement

Answer 34

Negative reinforcement → when the removal of a stimulus makes the operant response more likely to occur positive reinforcement → when the arrival of a stimulus moves the operant response more likely to occur difference: wether if the stimulus appears or disappears as a result of operant response.

Question 35

Difference punishment reinforcement

Answer 35

Punishment: opposite of reinforcement, any consequences that will render the repetition of an operant response less likely : positive punishment → arrival of an unwanted stimuli that will decrease - the operant response. Negative punishment: → removal of a beneficial factor to render the operant conditioning less likely to occur

Question 36

Negative reinforcement

Answer 36

Removal of an unwanted stimuli that would render the repetition of an operant response more likely.

Question 37

Positive reinforcement

Answer 37

The arrival of a desired outcome to render the operant response more likely to occur.

Question 38

Five lines about the evolutionary function of play:

Answer 38

①young animals play more that do adults of their species ② species of animals that have to learn the most play the most ③ young animals play most at those skills that they most need to learn ④ play involves much repetition (mastering skills) ⑤ play is challenging (they put themselves
That challenge their abilities > better abilities needed