Chapter 7: Positive And Negative Elements Of Social Interactions Flashcards
Dispositional Attribution
Behavior that is attributed to internal causes
Situational Attribution
Behavior that is attributed to external causes
What three factors determine whether we attribute behavior to internal or external causes?
Consistency (Is this how the person usually acts?)
Distinctiveness (Is the person only acting towards you a certain way or everyone?)
Consensus (Is only that one person angry or is everyone angry?)
fundamental attribution error
when we tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of a person’s character on their behavior
Example: Someone cuts us off, so he must be a jerk
the actor-observer bias
the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities
Example: We cut someone off, we’re in a hurry
the self-serving bias
the tendency to attribute our successes to ourselves and our failures to others or the external environment
the optimism bias
the belief that bad things happen to other people, not us
the just world phenomenon
the tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve (when bad things happen to others, we tend to believe that it is the result of their actions; when good things happen to us, it is because we deserve it)
the halo effect (halo error)
a tendency to believe that people have good or bad natures, rather than looking at an individual’s characteristics
the physical attractiveness stereotype
a specific type of halo effect; people tend to rate attractive people more favorable for personality traits and characteristics
social perception
the initial information we process about other people in order to try and understand their mindsets and intentions
social cognition
the ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perceptions
false consensus
occurs when we assume everyone agrees with us
projection bias
occurs when we assume others have the same beliefs we do
stereotypes
oversimplified ideas about groups of people based on characteristics
prejudice
thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone holds about a group that are not based on actual experience
discrimination
unjust treatment of a group based on characteristics
racism
prejudices and actions that discriminate based on race or hold that one race is inferior to another
institutional discrimination
discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures, processes, or institutional objectives
illusory correlation
occurs when someone with a unique characteristic is seen as a representative of a group
Example: All blacks must be good at basketball because Michael Jordan is good at basketball
self-fulfilling prophecy
when stereotypes lead a person to behave a certain way as to affirm the original stereotype
stereotype threat
the fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype they know a person has towards the group to which they belong
ethnocentrisism
the tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one’s own culture
cultural relativism
judging another culture based on its own standards
group
a collection of any number of people who regularly interact and identify with each other, sharing similar norms, values, and expectations; split into primary groups (those with whom a person engages with in person, in long-term, emotional ways) and secondary groups (those with whom a person interacts for a specific reason, for a short period of time)
aggregate
people who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity
category
people who share similar characteristics, but are not otherwise tied together
in-group
a group that an individual belongs to and believes to be an integral part of who he is
out-group
a group that an individual does not belong to
mere presence
people who are simply in each other’s presence; can have a considerable effect on an individual’s performance
social facilitation effect
when people tend to perform simple, well-learned tasks better when other people are present
deindividuation
when people lose their sense of restraint and their individual identity in exchange for identifying with a group or mob mentality during periods of high arousal and low responsibility; usually occurs in large groups
Kitty Genovese Case
involved the stabbing of a woman in NYC late at night; her neighbors heard her cries for help, but no one actually helped her because everyone assumed someone else had called for help
bystander effect
the finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other people around; creates a diffusion of responsibility
social loafing
when people are working towards a common goal, they tend to exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group than if they are individually accountable
group polarization
the finding that groups tend to intensify the preexisting views of its members (the entire group tends toward a more extreme version of the average views they initially shared before discussion)
Two reasons why group polarization occurs
informational influence- complying because we feel like other know something we don’t know
normative influence- complying because we want to be accepted by others
groupthink
pressure not to rock the boat in a group by providing a dissenting opinion
symptoms of groupthink
the group is overly optimistic of its capabilities
the group becomes increasingly extreme
some members filter out information that goes against the beliefs of the group
individuals censor their own opinion
deviance
a violation of society’s standards of conduct or expectations
stigma
extreme disapproval of a person based on that person’s actual or perceived deviance from society
Solomon Asch
demonstrated conformity through an experiment that had subjects compare three lines both in the presence of confederates and by themselves
Stanley Milgram
demonstrated conformity with his shock experiments
Three ways behavior may be motivated by social influences
Compliance- is motivated by the desire to seek rewards and avoid punishment
Identification- is motivated by the desire to be like another person or group
Internalization- is motivated by values and beliefs that have been integrated into one’s own value system (the most enduring motivator)
self concept (self identity)
the sum of an individual’s knowledge and understanding of his or herself (includes physical, psychological, and social attributes)
self schema
beliefs that a person has about him or herself
personal identity
consists of one’s own sense of personal attributes (Examples- smart, funny)
social identity
consists of social definitions of who you are (Examples- race, religion, gender, occupation)
self reference effect
the tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves
Carl Rogers
Founder of the humanistic psychology perspective
Believed that personality is composed of the ideal self (who you ought to be), which is usually an impossible standard, and the real self (who you actually are)
When the real self and the ideal self are similar, the result is a positive self concept
When the real self falls short of the ideal self, the result is incongruity
Three influences on an individual’s development of self concept
- Self-efficacy (how capable we believe we are at doing something)
- Locus of control (internal or external)
- Self esteem (one’s overall self-evaluation of one’s self worth)
Internal Locus of Control
the belief of an individual that he or she is able to influence outcomes through their own efforts or actions
External Locus of Control
the belief of an individual that an outcome is controlled by outside forces
learned helplessness
occurs when an animal is repeatedly subjected to a stimulus that it cannot escape; eventually the animal stops trying to avoid the stimulus and behaves as if it is utterly helpless to change the situation
identity formation (individuation)
the development of a distinct individual personality (changes throughout life)
Charles Cooley
posited the idea of the looking glass self (the idea that a person’s sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perceptions of others); people shape their self concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them
George Herbert Mead
developed the idea of social behaviorism
social behaviorism
the idea that the mind and self emerge through the process of communication with others; the beginning of symbolic interactionism
According to Mead, what is the path to the development of self?
- Preparatory Stage- children imitate others, as they have no concept of how others see things
- Play Stage- children take on the roles of others through playing
- Game Stage- children learn to consider multiple roles simultaneously and begin to understand the responsibility of multiple roles
- The child develops an understanding of the generalized other
the generalized other
the common behavioral expectations of common society
Mead’s idea of the “me” and the “I”
“Me” is how the individual believes the generalized other perceives it; the “I” is the response to the “me” (is the response of the individual to the attitudes of others)
socialization
the process through which people learn to be proficient and functional members of society
norms
spoken or unspoken rules and expectations a society has for the behavior of its members
sanctions
rewards or punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms (reinforces norms)
formal norms
generally written down; are precisely defines, publicly presented, and often accompanied by strict penalties for those who violate them
informal norms
are generally understood but are less precise and often carry no specific punishment
mores
norms that are strictly enforced because they are highly important for the benefit of society
folkways
norms that are less important but shape everyday behavior
assimilation
the process by which an individual forsakes aspects of his own cultural traditions to adopt those of different cultures
amalgamation
occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group
multiculturalism (pluralism)
endorse equal standing for all cultural traditions; cultures come together in a melting pot; each culture is able to maintain its own practices
subculture
a segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions and values that differs from that of the larger society; is a culture existing within a larger dominant culture
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Level 1- Preconventional Level of Moral Reasoning: Stage 1- Obedience and Punishment Orientation (“How can I avoid Punishment?”); Stage 2- Self-Interest Orientation (“What’s in it for me?”)
Level 2- Conventional Level of Moral Reasoning: Stage 3- Interpersonal Accord and Conformity (“What will make others like me?”); Stage 4- Authority and Social Order Maintaining Orientation (“What am I supposed to do?”)
Level 3- Post Conventional Level of Moral Reasoning (many people never reach): Stage 5- Social Contract Orientation (“The greatest good for the greatest number of people”); Stage 6- Universal Ethical Principles (Laws are only valid if they are grounded in justice)
