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***PSYCH 275- Brain & Behaviour > Chapter 7 - Non-Vision Senses > Flashcards

Chapter 7 - Non-Vision Senses Flashcards

1
Q

What are sound waves?

A

Undulating displacement of molecules by CHANGING PRESSURE

Compression/rarefaction of molecules in a fluid (squishing together & spreading apart)

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2
Q

What are 3 properties of waves and their related quality?

A
  1. Amplitude: loudness
  2. Frequency: pitch
  3. Purity: timbre
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3
Q

What are pure tones?

What are complex tones?

A

Sounds w/ a SINGLE frequency

Sounds w/ a MIXTURE of frequencies

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4
Q

What is fundamental frequency?

A

RATE of which the COMPLEX waveform pattern repeats

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5
Q

What are overtones?

A

Set of HIGHER-FREQUENCY sound waves that vibrate at whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency

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6
Q

What do complex tones contain?

A

Waveforms of the notes C, E and G

First wave in EACH = is the fundamental frequency

Secondary waves are = overtones

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7
Q

What is the auditory system function?

Explain the path

A

COLLECTS sound waves from the surrounding air

CONVERTS (transduces) mechanical energy —> electrochemical neural energy (frequency, amplitude & complexity) —> routed through BRAINSTEM —-> AUDITORY CORTEX

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8
Q

What is the first step in hearing?

A

PINNA catches sound waves and DEFLECTS them into external ear canal

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9
Q

What are the 3 major parts of the ear?

A

External ear: pinna & ear canal

Middle ear: ossicles

Inner ear: the cochlea

***SOUND CONDUCTED DIFF IN EACH

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10
Q

What is included in the external/outer ear?

A

Pinna:
- funnel-like structure designed to CATCH sound waves and deflect them into ear canal

External ear canal:
- AMPLIFIES sound waves somewhat & directs them to the EARDRUM (vibrates the frequency of sound wave)

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11
Q

What is the second step in hearing?

A

Waves are amplified and directed to eardrum (causing to vibrate)

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12
Q

What is the third step in hearing?

A

The ossicles vibrate

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13
Q

What is the fourth step in hearing?

A

Ossicles amplify and convey vibrations to the oval window

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14
Q

What is included in the middle ear?

A

Ossicles:
- hammer (malleus)
- anvil (incus)
- stirrup (stapes)

Connects the eardrum (tympanic membrane) to the oval window of the cochlea- located in inner ear

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15
Q

What is included in the inner ear?

A

Cochlea:
- FLUID-FILLED ear canal that contains AUDITORY RECEPTOR CELLS

Organ of corti:
- receptors cells and the cells that support them

Basilar membrane:
- RECEPTOR SURFACE in the cochlea that transduces sound waves —> neural activity

Hair cells:
- SENSORY NEURONS in the cochlea tipped by CILIA

Tectorial membrane:
- membrane OVERLYING HAIR CELLS

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16
Q

What are 2 theories of hearing?

A
  1. Place theory:
    - pitch perception corresponds to the VIBRATION OF DIFF PORTIONS, or places along the basilar membrane
  2. Frequency theory:
    - pitch perception corresponds to the RATE/FREQUENCY at which the BASILAR MEMBRANE VIBRATES
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17
Q

Low-frequency tones appear to be translated into pitch through “____________ ________”

High-frequency pure tones appear to rely on “_______ ________”

Complex tones depending on “_________ ___________” of place and frequency coding

A

Frequency coding

Place coding

Complex combinations

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18
Q

What are 2 types of hair cells? (Used in transduction)

A

**FOCUS - Inner hair cells:
- auditory receptors
- 3 500 total

Outer hair cells:
- alter stiffness of tectoral membrane
- 12 000 total

***MOVEMENT OF BASILAR MEMBRANE CREATES = BENDING/SHEARING IN HAIR CELLS

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19
Q

Movement if cilia on hair cells changes “_________ ________” and alters “______________” release

What are the 2 directions?

A

Membrane potential; neurotransmitter

  1. Depolarization:
    - Ca2+ channels open, more neurotransmitters = more action potentials
  2. Hyperpolarization:
    - neurotransmitter release decreases = decreasing neuron activity
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20
Q

What is the pathway to the auditory cortex?

5 STEPS

A
  1. Inner hair cells SYNAPSE on bipolar cells whose axons form the AUDITORY/COCHLEAR NERVE
  2. Enters the BRAINSTEM (HINDBRAIN) at the level of the medulla, SYNAPSES in the COCHLEAR NUCLEUS (goes to both hemispheres & some stays on some side/some crosses)
  3. Cochlear nucleus projects to SUPERIOR OLIVE & TRAPEZOID BODY
  4. From the hindbrain, info projects into the INFERIOR COLLICULUS in the dorsal midbrain
  5. TWO distinct pathways from inferior colliculus:
    *ventral medial geniculate nucleus —> primary auditory cortex (A1)
    *dorsal medial geniculate nucleus —> other auditory regions around A1
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21
Q

Where does the primary auditory cortex (A1) lie?

Where does the secondary cortex (A2) lie?

A

A1= W/IN HESCHL’S GYRUS in LEFT HEMISPHERE
(Has specialized response to music in right hemisphere)
——————————————————————————-
A2 = BEHIND HESCHL’s GYRUS

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22
Q

What is Wenicke’s area?

A

POSTERIOR SPEECH ZONE at the rear of the LEFT TEMPORAL LOBE

Regulates LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION

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23
Q

What is lateralization?

A

Whereby FXN’s become localized primarily on ONE SIDE of the BRAIN

Speech = largely in LEFT hemisphere

Musical sounds = largely in RIGHT hemisphere

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24
Q

About “___%” of left-handers are similar to right-handers, having language in the left hemisphere

In the remaining “___%” speech is represented either in the right or bilaterally

A

70%; 30%

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25
Q

What is the insular cortex? (Insula)

A

MULTIFXN CORTICAL TISSUE containing regions related to…
- language
- perception of taste
- neural structures underlying social cognition

Located W/IN LATERAL FISSURE

INJURY = can produce disturbances to both LANGUAGE & TASTE

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26
Q

What is the auditory tonotopic map?

A

Representation of the basilar membrane is PRODUCED in the cochlear nucleus

Systematic representation is maintained thought AUDITORY PATHWAYS & into the PRIMARY AUDITORY CORTEX

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27
Q

What are 2 ways we can detect location?

A
  1. Neurons in BRAINSTEM compute difference in a sound waves arrival time at EACH EAR
    = interaural TIME difference
  2. RELATIVE LOUDNESS on the left & right
    = interaural INTENSITY difference
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28
Q

Compare the auditory ventral and dorsal pathways…

A
  1. Ventral pathway:
    - decodes spectrally COMPLEX SOUNDS
    - auditory object recognition
    - meaning of speech sounds
  2. Dorsal pathway:
    - integrates AUDITORY & SOMATOSENSORY info to control SPEECH PRODUCTION
    - audition for action
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29
Q

What is the difference between innate and learned?

A
  1. Innate:
    - Noam Chomsky & Steven pinker
    - GENETIC CONSTRAINTS reposndibke for common structural characteristics across languages
  2. Learned:
    - experience REQUIRED for language learning
    - sensitive period 1-3 yrs of age
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30
Q

What is Broca’s area?

A

ANTERIOR SPEECH AREA in LEFT HEMISPHERE

FXNS W/IN motor cortex to produce MOVEMENTS needed for speaking

31
Q

What is Broca’s aphasia?

A

Inability to SPEAK FLUENTLY despite normal comprehension & intact vocal mechanisms

32
Q

What is Wernicke’s aphasia?

A

Inability to UNDERSTAND/PRODUCE MEANINGFUL LANGUAGE even though the production of words is still intact

33
Q

What is the somatosensory system?

A

Responsible for PERCEPTION of bodily sensations such as touch, temp, pain, position in space & movement of limbs

DISTRIBUTED SYSTEM, rather than localized

Essential in guiding MOTOR MOVEMENTS
(Closely integrated w/ motor system)

34
Q

What is sensitivity in the somatosensory system?

A

Sensitivity to diff somatosensory stimuli is a FXN of the kinds of RECEPTORS (many types)

Areas w/ larger #’s of receptors are MORE SENSITIVE to stimulation than areas w/ LESS receptors

35
Q

What are the 2 types of human skin?

A
  1. Glabrous skin:
    - covers used to INTERACT W/ THE ENVIRO
    - lips, tongue, palms
    - does NOT have skin follicles
    - HIGH DENSITY of sensory receptors
  2. Hairy skin:
    - covers REST of body
    - has HAIR FOLLICLES
    - LOWER DENSITY of sensory receptors
36
Q

What is the two-point sensitivity test?

A

Scissor-like device WALK-ALONG skin then ask “are you detecting two stimulus or one?”

Different depending on spot

37
Q

What is the duration of receptor response?

A
  1. Rapidly adapting receptor:
    - BODY sensory receptor that responds BRIEFY to the BEGINNING & END of a stimulus on the body
  2. Slowly adapting receptor:
    - BODY sensory receptor that responds AS LONG as a SENSORY STIMULUS is on body
38
Q

What is nociception?

What happens when there is damage/irritation to this?

A

Pain, temperature and itch

FREE nerve endings for PAIN, adaption = slow
(Sharp and dull pain)

FREE nerve endings for TEMP, adaption = slow
(Heat or coldness)

DAMAGE/IRRITATION = to dendrite/surrounding cells RELEASES CHEMICALS that stimulate dendrite to produce ACTION POTENTIALS

39
Q

What is hapsis?

What happens when there is pressure on this?

A

Fine touch and pressure

Meissner corpuscle (TOUCH), adaptation = rapid

Pacinian corpuscle (FLUTTER), adaptation = rapid

Ruffini corpuscle (INDENTATION), adaptation = slow

Merkel disc (STEADY SKIN IRRATATION), adaptation = slow

Hair receptors (flutter or steady skin indentation), adaptation = slow
***WILL MAINLY SKIP OVER

PRESSURE = various types of tissue capsules mechanically STIMULATES the dendrites W/IN them to produce action potentials

40
Q

What is the meissner corpuscle?

***RAPIDLY ADAPTING RECEPTORS

A

Located CLOSE to the SURFACE of the skin (small receptive field)

Respond RAPIDLY to VIBRATIONS on GLABROUS SKIN
(Hand-grip)

41
Q

What is the pacinian corpuscle?

***RAPIDLY ADAPTING RECEPTORS

A

Located DEEPER in the skin (large receptor field)

Associated w/ sensing RAPID VIBRATIONS & DEEP PRESSURE; FINE TEXTUREV

42
Q

What is the merkel discs (receptor)?

***SLOWLY ADAPTING RECEPTORS

A

Located CLOSE to the SURFACE of the skin (small receptive field)

Respond to LIGHT TOUCH on HAIRY SKIN
(Fine details)

43
Q

What is the ruffini corpuscle (aka ending/cylinder)?

***SLOWLY ADAPTING RECEPTORS

A

Located DEEPER in the skin (large receptive field)

Respond to SLOW STRETCHING of the skin

44
Q

What is proprioception?

What happens when there is movement?

A

Body awareness

Muscle spindles (MUSCLE STRETCH), adaptation = rapid

Golgi tendon organs (TENDON STRETCH), adaptation = rapid

Joint receptors (JOINT MOVEMENT), adaptation = rapid

MOVEMENT = stretch the receptors to mechanically STIMULATE the dendrites W/IN them to produce action potentials

45
Q

What is the vestibular system?

What can vestibular organs provide info on?

A

BALANCE system made up of:
- SEMICIRCULAR CANALS: detect head rotation
- OTOLITH ORGANS (utricle & saccule): sense body’s relationship to gravity & linear acceleration

Vestibular organs can provide info on…
1. POSITION of body in relation to GRAVITY
2. Changes in DIRECTION & SPEED of HEAD movements

46
Q

What are the semicircular canals?

A

ORIENTED in 3 planes

Canals filled w/ FLUID (endolymph) —> moves w/ HEAD MOVEMENTS —> BENDS (cilia) on HAIR CELLS —> creates RECEPTOR POTENTIALS (in hair cells/action potentials in vestibular nerve)

DIRECTION determines whether the hair cell becomes DEPOLARIZED or HYPERPOLARIZED

47
Q

What are the otolith organs?

A

UTRICLE & SACCULE on top of one another BELOW semicircular canals

Contain HAIR CELLS embedded W/IN a gelatin-like substance that contains OTOCONIA (small crystals of CaCO3)

Gelatine and otoconia PUSH against HAIR CELLS when HEAD TILTS = alters RATE of ACTION POTENTIALS in vestibular nerve

48
Q

What is the primary somatosensory cortex?

A

Receives projections from the THALAMUS

Brodmanns areas 3-1-2

Begins the process of CONSTRUCTING PERCEPTIONS from SOMATOSENSORY info

49
Q

What happens when there is damage to the somatosensory cortex?

A

Impairs sensory thresholds, proprioception, hapsis (ability to identify objects by touch) and simple movements (reaching and grasping)

Neuroplastcity = potential to recover (better if young)

50
Q

Somatosensory homunculi?

A

4 separate ones:

Area 3a: muscles

Area 3b: skin (slow)

Area 1: skin (fast)

Area 2: joints, pressure

51
Q

What is the secondary somatosensory cortex?

A

Located BEHIND primary somatosensory cortex

Broadmanns area 5 and 7

REFINES construction of perceptions, PROJECTS to frontal cortex

Receives somatosensory info from SI visual cortex, and auditory cortex

Connections b/w somatosensory cortex and motor cortex suggest that movement begins in the SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX

52
Q

How does the somatosensory cortex work w/ complex movement?

A

DORSAL visual stream projects to SECONDARY somatosensory coretx —> FRONTAL cortex

Visual info is INTEGRATED w/ this to provide UNCONCIOUS MOVEMENT

SECONDARY somatosensory cortex interacts w/ ventral stream by providing conscious haptic info about IDENTITY of objects and completed movements

53
Q

What does the spinal cord, brainstem and cerebrum do?

A

Spinal cord: motor REFLEXES

Brainstem: movement TIMING & CONTROL

Cerebrum: complex VOLUNTARY movement

54
Q

What is the layering in the neocortex?

A

Layer IV (afferent) is relatively THICK in the SENSORY cortex and relatively THIN in the MOTOR cortex

Layer V (efferent) is relatively THICK in the MOTOR cortex and relatively THIN in the SENSORY cortex

55
Q

What is the forebrain?

(1950’s theory)

A

Lashleys theory: (1950’s)

Skilled movements performed too quickly to rely on feedback and movement

Argued that movements are performed at MOTOR SEQUENCES, the next one is ready

Preprogrammed by BRAIN and produced as a UNIT

56
Q

Explain the function of the prefrontal cortex, premotor cortex, and the primary motor cortex…

A

Prefrontal cortex: PLANS complex behaviour

Premotor cortex: PRODUCES the appropriate complex movement sequences

Primary motor cortex: SPECIFIES how each movement is to be CARRIED OUT

57
Q

What is the primary motor cortex specialize in?

A

In producing focal SKILLED movements, such as those of the arms, hands and mouth

Damage to M1 creates difficulty reaching and shaping fingers to perform various hand grasps

Ex) pincer grasp

Ex) whole-hand grip

58
Q

What happens during simple movement?

A

Blood flow INCREASES in hand

Area of the primary somatosensory cortex & primary motor cortex

Use a finger to push a lever

59
Q

What happens during movement sequence?

A

Blood flow INCREASES in premotor cortex

When perform sequences of movements

60
Q

What happens during complex movement?

A

Blood flow INCREASES in prefrontal, temporal, and paretial cortex

Use finger to find route through a maze

61
Q

What is the brainstem?

(1950’s theory)

A

Hess

Stimulated diff areas w/in brainstem to produce diff SPECIES-SPECIFIC behaviours

Some sites produce head turning, walking/running, and others elicited aggression or fear

62
Q

What does the spinal cord do?

What happens when it’s severed?

A

In humans/other animal w/ a SEVERED spinal cord, spinal REFLEXES still fxn even though the spinal cord is cut off from communication w/ the brain

Paralyzed limbs may display spontaneous movement or spasms

Brain can no longer guide the timing of these automatic movements

63
Q

How is movement mapped?

A

Originally thought each part of the HOMUNCULUS controls muscles in THAT part of the body

Info from cortical regions could be sent to the motor homoculus —> neurons appropriate part —-> activate body muscles

Recent experiments suggests that the motor cortex represents NOT MUSCLES but rather a repertoire of FUNDAMENTAL movement categories

64
Q

What is motor cortex and skilled movement?

A

FIRING of motor cortex neurons

PLANNING/INITIATING movements

Code force of movements:
- neurons INCREASE rate/duration in response to HEAVIER weight

Simple coding of movement direction:
- flexor versus extensor muscles

65
Q

How do we control our muscles?

A

Limb muscles are arranged in PAIRS

  1. Extensor:
    - moves (extends) limb away from trunk
  2. Flexor:
    - moves limb (toward) trunk

Connections b/w INTERNEURONS & MOTOR NEURONS ensure that the muscles work together so that when one muscle CONTRACTS, the other RELAXES

66
Q

What is the basal ganglia?

A

RECIEVE input from:
- all areas of neocortex and allocortex, including motor cortex
- the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system from the substantial nigra

Project BACK to the motor cortex and substantia nigra

Serve WIDE ranges of fxns:
- association
- habit learning
- emotion
- motivation
- motor control

67
Q

What is volume control theory?

A

GLOBUS PALLIDUS internal acts like a VOLUME CONTROL on the motor cortex

  • If it’s turned up, movement is blocked
  • If its turned down, movement is allowed
68
Q

What is the mesolimbic dopamine pathway?

A

Nucleus accumbes recieves projections from DOPAMINE CELLS of the ventral tegmental area

Part of a loop that AIDS our PERCEPTION of CUES SIGNALING REWARD = dopamine

Ex) when you are hungry you can “imagine” food and how enjoyable it would be (part of this pathway)

69
Q

What is the anatomy of the cerebellum?

A

2 hemispheres

Homuncular organization

Flocculus:
- SMALL, but DENSE lobe involved in eye movements & balance

Lateral parts:
- CONTROLS movement of limbs, hands, feet and digits

Medial parts:
- CONTROLS movement of face & midline body

**DONT KNOW MUCH ABOUT
**MAY BE INVOLVED IN EMOTION?
***MORE NEURONS IN CEREBELLUM THAN ALL OF OUR BRAIN

70
Q

How does the cerebellum improve control?

What are the 2 main motor functions?

A

Cortex sends SAME motor instructions to the spinal cord and cerebellum

Sensory receptors CODE actual movement and REPORT to cerebellum

Cerebellum has info about both versions of the movement:
1. What you intend to do
2. What you actually did
3. Then calculate error + correct
——————————————————————————————
1. Timing:
- movements and perceptions

  1. Maintaining movement accuracy:
    - error correction
    - compares intended movement with actual movement (adjusts)
71
Q

The axons of bipolar cells from the cochlea form the “__________” nerve, which is part of the “__________” cranial nerve

A

Auditory; auditory vestibular

72
Q

The auditory nerve originating in the cochlea projects to various nucleus in the brainstem; then it projects to the “___________” in the midbrain and the “__________” in the thalamus

A

Inferior colliculus; medial geniculate nucleus

73
Q

What is functional asymmetry?

A

LEFT temporal cortex analyzes language-related sounds

RIGHT temporal cortex analyzes music-related tones

*Herschls gyrus larger in right hemisphere

*Planum temporale larger in left hemisphere

74
Q

“Tonotopic” means of a “tone place”

A

Tonotopioc representation:
- hair cell cilia at the BASE of the cochlea are maximally displaced by high- frequency waves
- hair cell cilia at the APEX are displaced by low-frequency waves, which we hear as low-pitched sounds

***PSYCH 275- Brain & Behaviour (9 decks)

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