Chapter 7 Motivation

Question 1

1 Describe the three key elements of motivation

Answer 1

intensity, direction, and persistence.

Question 2

2 Identify early theories of motivation and evaluate their applicability today.

Answer 2

hierarchy of needs Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of five needs—physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization—in which, as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

1. Physiological. Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs.
2. Safety. Security and protection from physical and emotional harm.
3. Social. Affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.
4. Esteem. Internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement, and external factors such as status, recognition, and attention.
5. Self-actualization. Drive to become what we are capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving our potential, and self-fulfillment.

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs　上の５つに優先順位をつけること。アメリカ（？）ではself-actualization, Esteem,Social,Safety,Phisiologicalの順で優先。

Theory X The assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, dislike responsibility, and must be coerced強要 to perform.

Theory X Manager does not trust their employees.

Theory Y The assumption that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-direction.

two-factor theory (motivation hygiene theory)A theory that relates intrinsic(固有の） factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction.

job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction act independently of each other

McClelland’s theory of needs A theory that states achievement, power, and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation.

need for achievement (nAch) The drive to excel, to achieve in relationship to a set of standards, and to strive to succeed.

Need for power (nPow) is the need to make others behave in a way they would not have otherwise.

Need for affiliation (nAff) is the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.

nAchが一番大事かなーと思われている

Question 3

3 Apply the predictions of self-determination theory to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.

Answer 3

self-determination theory A theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic（固有の） motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation.

When people are paid for work, it feels less like something they want to do and more like something they have to do.

ボランティアでしていた楽しい仕事が正式に雇われて給料もらうようになってから以前程楽しくなくなった。

cognitive evaluation theory A version of self-determination theory which holds that allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation if the rewards are seen as controlling.

self-concordance（一致、調和） The degree to which peoples’ reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values.目指してるゴールが好きな事だったらそれだけ達成しやすいし達成しなくても幸せになれる。

What does all this mean? For individuals, it means choose your job for reasons other than extrinsic rewards. For organizations, it means managers should provide intrinsic as well as extrinsic incentives. They need to make the work　interesting, provide recognition, and support employee growth and development. Employees who feel what they do is within their control and a result of free choice are likely to be more motivated by their work and committed to their employers.

job engagement The investment of an employee’s physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance.

What makes people more likely to be engaged in their jobs? One key is the degree to which an employee believes it is meaningful to engage in work. This is partially determined by job characteristics and access to sufficient resources to work effectively. Another factor is a match between the individual’s values and those of the organization. Leadership behaviors that inspire workers to a greater sense of mission also increase employee engagement.

Question 4

4 Understand the implications of employee engagement for management.

Answer 4

goal-setting theory A theory that says that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance.

management by objectives (MBO) A program that encompasses（含む） specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress.

Four ingredients are common to MBO programs: goal specificity, participation in decision making (including the setting of goals or objectives), an explicit time period, and performance feedback

self-efficacy（自己効力感 ） An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.

The researcher who developed self-efficacy theory, Albert Bandura, proposes four ways self-efficacy can be increased:

1. Enactive mastery: gaining relevant experience with the task or job
2. Vicarious(自分のことのように味わう） modeling: becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task.
3. Verbal persuasion: becoming more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to be successful.
4. Arousal（特に性的な興奮/覚醒）Arousal leads to an energized state, so the person gets “psyched up” and performs better.

Question 5

5 Compare and contrast goal-setting theory and management by objectives.

Answer 5

Goal-setting is a cognitive approach, proposing that an individual’s purposes direct his action. Reinforcement theory, in contrast, takes a behavioristic view, arguing that reinforcement conditions behavior. Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on what happens when he or she takes some action. 例：遅刻しない従業員に褒美を与える。そしたら従業員は皆遅刻しないように心がける。

behaviorism A theory that argues that behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.

social-learning theory The view that we can learn through both observation and direct experience.

Models are central to the social-learning viewpoint. Four processes determine their influence on an individual:

1. Attentional processes. People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its critical features. We tend to be most influenced by models that are attractive, repeatedly available, important to us, or similar to us in our estimation.
2. Retention processes. A model’s influence depends on how well the individual remembers the model’s action after the model is no longer readily available.
3. Motor reproduction processes. After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, watching must be converted to doing. This process demonstrates that the individual can perform the modeled activities.
4. Reinforcement processes. Individuals are motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if positive incentives or rewards are provided. Positively reinforced behaviors are given more attention, learned better, and performed more often.

Question 6

6 Contrast reinforcement theory and goal-setting theory.

Answer 6

equity theory A theory that says that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities(不公平）.同僚が自分より経験も学歴ないのに自分より収入あるからやる気なくした。自分の価値を他人と比べる事によって見定める。

1. Self–inside. An employee’s experiences in a different position inside the employee’s current organization.
2. Self–outside. An employee’s experiences in a situation or position outside the employee’s current organization.
3. Other–inside. Another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s organization.

organizational justice An overall perception of what is fair in the workplace, composed of distributive, procedural, and interactional justice

distributive justice Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals.例:I got the pay raise I deserved.

procedural justice The perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards.例: I had input into the process used to give raises and was given a good explanation of why I received the raise I did.

interactional justice The perceived degree to which an individual is treated with dignity, concern, and respect.例: When telling me about my raise, my supervisor was very nice and complimentary.

Question 7

7 Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity theory.

Answer 7

expectancy theory A theory that says that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.褒美が大事

1. Effort–performance relationship. The probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance.
2. Performance–reward relationship. The degree to which the individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.
3. Rewards–personal goals relationship. The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual.

• if I give a maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance appraisal?*
• if I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to organizational rewards?*
• if I’m rewarded, are the rewards attractive to me?*

Question 8

5) Which of the following sources of increasing self-efficacy involves gaining relevant experience with a particular task or job?
a) verbal persuasion
b) enactive mastery
c) vicarious modeling
d) arousal
e) cognitive learning

Answer 8

B