Chapter 6 Perception and Individual Decision Making Flashcards
1 Define perception and explain the factors that influence it.
perception: A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.
your interpretation is heavily influenced by your personal characteristics—your attitudes, personality, motives, interests, past experiences, and expectations
2 Explain attribution theory and list the three determinants of attribution.
attribution theory: An attempt to determine whether an individual’s behavior is internally or externally caused.
(1) distinctiveness, (2) consensus合意, and (3) consistency
Internally caused behaviors are those we believe to be under the personal control of the individual.例：従業員が遅刻したり。
Externally caused behavior is what we imagine the situation forced the individual to do. 例：従業員が事故に巻き込まれたり。
Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations. 遅刻した従業員の態度がいつも通りならinternal attribution、いつも通りじゃなかったらexternal attribution.
If everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way, we can say the behavior shows consensus. 同じ経路を辿った従業員達が他にも大勢いたらexternal.同じ経路を辿ったのにその人だけ遅刻ならinternal.
Finally, an observer looks for consistency in a person’s actions. Does the person respond the same way over time?
fundamental attribution error
他人の失敗を過大評価したり成功を過小評価する傾向
self-serving bias
自己中心的な考え。
Researchers asked one group of people “If someone sues you and you win the case, should he pay your legal costs?” Eighty-five percent responded “yes.” Another group was asked “If you sue someone and lose the case, should you pay his costs?” Only 44 percent answered “yes.”
3 Identify the shortcuts individuals use in making judgments about others.
Selective perception: 俺とかな恵ちゃんが赤プリウス買ってから同じ車がどうしてもすぐ目に入ってしまう現象ｗ選挙もその時起こってる社会問題によって大きく結果が左右する。
Halo Effect: The tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic.オバマ賛成派ならオバマの嫌いなところを１０個述べよ、反対派なら好きな所を１０個述べよ。決して楽ではないはず。それがハロエフェクト。
Contrast Effects: Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that is affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.個人をその時その場にいる周りとどうしても比べてしまう事
Stereotyping: Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs.
Self-fulfilling prophecy: A situation in which a person inaccurately perceives a second person, and the resulting expectations cause the second person to behave in ways consistent with the original perception. 例：上司が部下に滅茶苦茶期待する＝部下は頑張る。上司が部下に最低限の仕事を期待する＝部下はそれに応じて最低限の仕事をする。
4 Explain the link between perception and decision making.
decisions: Choices made from among two or more alternatives.
problem: A discrepancy between the current state of affairs and some desired state.
Every decision requires us to interpret and evaluate information. We typically receive data from multiple sources and need to screen, process, and interpret them. Which data are relevant to the decision, and which are not? Our perceptions will answer that question. We also need to develop alternatives and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses. Again, our perceptual
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process will affect the final outcome. Finally, throughout the entire decision-making process, perceptual distortions often surface that can bias analysis and conclusions.
5 Apply the rational model of decision making and contrast it with bounded rationality and intuition.
rational: Characterized by making consistent, value-maximizing choices within specified constraints.
rational decision-making model: A decision-making model that describes how individuals should behave in order to maximize some outcome.
bounded rationality: A process of making decisions by constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexity.大学を選んだ時に実在する全ての大学を見比べたのか？答えはおそらくNO。
intuitive decision making: An unconscious process created out of distilled experience.直感的な決断
6 List and explain the common decision biases or errors.
Over Confidence Bias
anchoring bias A tendency to fixate on initial information, from which one then fails to adequately adjust for subsequent information.第一印象による偏見
confirmation bias The tendency to seek out information that reaffirms past choices and to discount information that contradicts past judgments.自己の先入観に基づいて他者・対象を観察し、自論に合う情報を選別し受容して、それにより自信を深め、自己の先入観が補強される現象
availability bias The tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is readily available to them.
escalation of commitment An increased commitment to a previous decision in spite of negative information. Escalation of commitment refers to staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence it’s wrong. Consider a friend who has been dating someone for several years. Although he admits things aren’t going too well, he says he is still going to marry her. His justification: “I have a lot invested in the relationship!”
randomness error The tendency of individuals to believe that they can predict the outcome of random events.
risk aversion The tendency to prefer a sure gain of a moderate amount over a riskier outcome, even if the riskier outcome might have a higher expected payoff.危険回避。
hindsight bias The tendency to believe falsely, after an outcome of an event is actually known, that one would have accurately predicted that outcome.
7 Explain how individual differences and organizational constraints affect decision making.
Individual differences→Personality, Gender,Mental Ability, Cultural Differences
Organizational constraints→Performance Evaluation, Reward Systems, Formal Regulations, System-Imposed Time Constraints, Historical Precedents
8 Contrast the three ethical decision criteria.
utilitarianism A system in which decisions are made to provide the greatest good for the greatest number.功利主義（こうりしゅぎ、英: Utilitarianism）は、行為や制度の社会的な望ましさは、その結果として生じる効用（功利、有用性）（英: utility）によって決定されるとする考え方である。
whistle-blowers Individuals who report unethical practices by their employer to outsiders.
A third criterion is to impose and enforce rules fairly and impartially to ensure justice or an equitable distribution of benefits and costs. Union members typically favor this view. It justifies paying people the same wage for a given job regardless of performance differences and using seniority as the primary determination in layoff decisions.
9 Define creativity and discuss the three-component model of creativity.
creativity The ability to produce novel and useful ideas.
three-component model of creativity The proposition that individual creativity requires expertise, creative thinking skills, and intrinsic task motivation.
Expertise(専門的意見/知識）
Creative thinking skills
moods: upbeats mood increases creativity
