Chapter 12 Leadership

Question 1

Define leadership

Answer 1

leadership The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals.

Question 2

2 Summarize the conclusions of trait theories of leadership.

Answer 2

trait theories of leadership Theories that consider personal qualities and characteristics that differentiate leaders from nonleaders.

Question 3

behavioral theories of leadership

Answer 3

Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders.

Trait research provides a basis for selecting the right people for leadership. In contrast, behavioral theories of leadership implied we could train people to be leaders.

Question 4

Initiating structure

Answer 4

Initiating structure is the extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and those of employees in the search for goal attainment. It includes behavior that attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals. A leader high in initiating structure is someone who “assigns group members to particular tasks,” “expects workers to maintain definite standards of performance,” and “emphasizes the meeting of deadlines.”きっちりしているリーダー

Question 5

Consideration

Answer 5

Consideration is the extent to which a person’s job relationships are characterized by mutual trust, respect for employees’ ideas, and regard for their feelings. A leader high in consideration helps employees with personal problems, is friendly and approachable, treats all employees as equals, and expresses appreciation and support. In a recent survey, when asked to indicate what most motivated them at work, 66 percent of employees mentioned appreciation.やさしくて思いやりのあるリーダー

Question 6

employee-oriented leader

Answer 6

A leader who emphasizes interpersonal relations, takes a personal interest in the needs of employees, and accepts individual differences among members.
従業員重視のリーダー

Question 7

production-oriented leader

Answer 7

A leader who emphasizes technical or task aspects of the job.
業績重視のリーダー

Question 8

Fiedler contingency model

Answer 8

The theory that effective groups depend on a proper match between a leader’s style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader.

Question 9

least preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire

Answer 9

An instrument that purports to measure whether a person is task or relationship oriented.

If you describe the person you are least able to work with in favorable terms (a high LPC score), Fiedler would label you relationship oriented. If you see your least-preferred co-worker in unfavorable terms (a low LPC score), you are primarily interested in productivity and are task oriented.

Question 10

After assessing an individual’s basic leadership style through the LPC questionnaire, we match the leader with the situation. Fiedler has identified three contingency or situational dimensions:

leader–member relations
task structure
position power

Answer 10

leader-member relations: The degree of confidence, trust, and respect subordinates have in their leader.

task structure: The degree to which job assignments are procedurized.

position power: Influence derived from one’s formal structural position in the organization; includes power to hire, fire, discipline, promote, and give salary increases.

A very favorable situation (in which the leader has a great deal of control) might include a payroll manager who is well respected and whose employees have confidence in her (good leader–member relations); activities that are clear and specific—such as wage computation, check writing, and report filing (high task structure); and provision of considerable freedom to reward and punish employees (strong position power).

Question 11

Situational leadership theory (SLT)

Answer 11

Situational leadership theory (SLT) focuses on the followers. It says successful leadership depends on selecting the right leadership style contingent on the followers’ readiness, or the extent to which they are willing and able to accomplish a specific task. A leader should choose one of four behaviors depending on follower readiness.

If followers are unable and unwilling to do a task, the leader needs to give clear and specific directions; if they are unable and willing, the leader needs to display high task orientation to compensate for followers’ lack of ability and high relationship orientation to get them to “buy into” the leader’s desires. If followers are able and unwilling, the leader needs to use a supportive and participative style; if they are both able and willing, the leader doesn’t need to do much.

SLT has intuitive appeal. It acknowledges the importance of followers and builds on the logic that leaders can compensate for their limited ability and motivation. Yet research efforts to test and support the theory have generally been disappointing.25 Why? Possible explanations include internal ambiguities and inconsistencies in the model itself as well as problems with research methodology in tests. So, despite its intuitive appeal and wide popularity, any endorsement must be cautious for now.

Question 12

path–goal theory

Answer 12

A theory that states that it is the leader’s job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization.

According to path–goal theory, whether a leader should be directive or supportive or should demonstrate some other behavior depends on complex analysis of the situation. It predicts the following:

● Directive leadership yields greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful than when they are highly structured and well laid out.
● Supportive leadership results in high performance and satisfaction when employees are performing structured tasks.
● Directive leadership is likely to be perceived as redundant among employees with high ability or considerable experience.

Question 13

leader-participation model

Answer 13

A leadership theory that provides a set of rules to determine the form and amount of participative decision making in different situations.

Question 14

charismatic leadership theory

Answer 14

A leadership theory that states that followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors.

Question 15

4 Key Characteristics of a Charismatic Leader

Answer 15

1. Vision and articulation. Has a vision—expressed as an idealized goal—that proposes a future better than the status quo; and is able to clarify the importance of the vision in terms that are understandable to others.
2. Personal risk. Willing to take on high personal risk, incur high costs, and engage in self-sacrifice to achieve the vision.
3. Sensitivity to follower needs. Perceptive of others’ abilities and responsive to their needs and feelings.
4. Unconventional behavior. Engages in behaviors that are perceived as novel and counter to norms.

Question 16

transactional leaders

transformational leaders

Answer 16

Transactional leader: Leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements.

Contingent Reward: Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishments.

Management by Exception (active): Watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards, takes correct action.

Management by Exception (passive): Intervenes only if standards are not met.

Laissez-Faire: Abdicates responsibilities, avoids making decisions.

Transformational Leader: Leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests and who are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on followers.

Idealized Influence: Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust.

Inspirational Motivation: Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses important purposes in simple ways.

Intellectual Stimulation: Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem solving.

Individualized Consideration: Gives personal attention, treats each employee individually, coaches, advises.

Question 17

Two ways to improve leader effectiveness

Answer 17

First, you can change the leader to fit the situation—as a baseball manager puts a right- or left-handed pitcher into the game depending on the hitter. If a group situation rates highly unfavorable but is currently led by a relationship-oriented manager, the group’s performance could be improved under a manager who is task-oriented.

The second alternative is to change the situation to fit the leader by restructuring tasks or increasing or decreasing the leader’s power to control factors such as salary increases, promotions, and disciplinary actions.

Question 18

leader–member exchange (LMX) theory

Answer 18

A theory that supports leaders’ creation of in-groups and out-groups; subordinates with in-group status will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction.
リーダーの”in-group”に入ってたら厚遇される。

Question 19

authentic leaders

Answer 19

Leaders who know who they are, know what they believe in and value, and act on those values and beliefs openly and candidly. Their followers would consider them to be ethical people.

Question 20

socialized charismatic leadership

Answer 20

A leadership concept that states that leaders convey values that are other centered versus self centered and who role-model ethical conduct.

Socialized charismatic leaders are able to bring employee values in line with their own values through their words and actions

Question 21

servant leadership

Answer 21

A leadership style marked by going beyond the leader’s own self-interest and instead focusing on opportunities to help followers grow and develop.

Question 22

How Is Trust Developed? Three key characteristics

Answer 22

integrity, benevolence, and ability

Question 23

What Are the Consequences of Trust?

Answer 23

Trust between supervisors and employees has a number of important advantages. Here are just a few that research has shown:

● Trust encourages taking risks. Whenever employees decide to deviate from the usual way of doing things, or to take their supervisors’ word on a new direction, they are taking a risk. In both cases, a trusting relationship can facilitate that leap.
● Trust facilitates information sharing. One big reason employees fail to express concerns at work is that they don’t feel psychologically safe revealing their views. When managers demonstrate they will give employees’ ideas a fair hearing and actively make changes, employees are more willing to speak out.120
● Trusting groups are more effective. When a leader sets a trusting tone in a group, members are more willing to help each other and exert extra effort, which further increases trust. Conversely, members of mistrusting groups tend to be suspicious of each other, constantly guard against exploitation, and restrict communication with others in the group. These actions tend to undermine and eventually destroy the group.
● Trust enhances productivity. The bottom-line interest of companies also appears positively influenced by trust. Employees who trust their supervisors tend to receive higher performance ratings.121 People respond to mistrust by concealing information and secretly pursuing their own interests.

Question 24

Attribution theory of leadership

Answer 24

The attribution theory of leadership says leadership is merely an attribution people make about other individuals.134 Thus we attribute to leaders intelligence, outgoing personality, strong verbal skills, aggressiveness, understanding, and industriousness.135 At the organizational level, we tend to see leaders, rightly or wrongly, as responsible for extremely negative or extremely positive performance.136

Question 25

substitutes

Answer 25

Attributes, such as experience and training, that can replace the need for a leader’s support or ability to create structure.

Question 26

neutralizers

Answer 26

Attributes that make it impossible for leader behavior to make any difference to follower outcomes.

Question 27

identification-based trust

Answer 27

Trust based on a mutual understanding of each other’s intentions and appreciation of each other’s wants and desires.

Question 28

How can managers get maximum effect from their leadership-training budgets?

Answer 28

First, let’s recognize the obvious. Leadership training of any kind is likely to be more successful with high self-monitors. Such individuals have the flexibility to change their behavior.

Second, what can organizations teach that might be related to higher leader effectiveness? Probably not “vision creation” but, likely, implementation skills. We can train people to develop “an understanding about content themes critical to effective visions.”

We can also teach skills such as trust building and mentoring. And leaders can be taught situational-analysis skills. They can learn how to evaluate situations, modify them to better fit their style, and assess which leader behaviors might be most effective in given situations. BHP Billiton, Best Buy, Nokia, and Adobe have hired coaches to help top executives one on one to improve their interpersonal skills and act less autocratically.

Behavioral training through modeling exercises can increase an individual’s ability to exhibit charismatic leadership qualities. Recall the researchers who scripted undergraduate business students to “play” charismatic.

Finally, leaders can be trained in transformational leadership skills that have bottom-line results, whether in the financial performance of Canadian banks or the effectiveness of soldiers in the Israeli Defense Forces.156