Chapter 7: Misrepresentation Flashcards

1
Q

What is misrepresentation?

A

Misrepresentation is a vitating factor. These are circumstances that can lead to a contract being held as void or voidable

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2
Q

What is the purpose of misrepresentation?

A

It concerns the effect of express statements made prior to entering a contract.

These consists of 4 different statements that caused the party to enter into contract, and the actions that can be brought to court

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3
Q

What are the 4 statements made prior that may cause the party to enter into contract. And what are the actions that can be brought against them to court?

A
  1. Terms - Some of these statements would end up as part of the contract (Action for breach of contract)
  2. Representation - Statements made during negotiations/pre-contract statement that entice the other party to enter contract (Action for misrepresentation)
  3. Mere puff - Sales talk/exaggerated statements (Not actionable)
  4. Collateral terms (Like an action for breach of warranty)
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4
Q

What are the disctinctions between the statements made prior

A

Terms

  • Remedy lies for Breach of Contract

Repressentation

  • Remedies available for Misrepresentation
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5
Q

What is the act that gave more remedies to Misrepresentation

A

Misrepresentation Act 1967

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6
Q

What was the situation before the Misrepresentation Act 1967

A
  • There were limited remedies for Misrepresentation
  • If there was a statement, the person would rather bring the terms, as a course of action
  • This would increase their chances to get a remedy as breach of contract had more remedies
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7
Q

What happened after the Misrepresentation Act 1967?

A
  • Everything then changed due to this Act - Today, it doesn’t really matter which problem you bring to court
  • Section 2 of MA 1967 - Allows much more extensive remedies in damages for misrepresentation
  • Section 1(a) of MA 1967 - Provides that a contract may be rescinded (revoked) for misrepresentation, even if the misrepresentation is also a term of the contract
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8
Q

How should Misrepresentation structured?

A

Actionable misrepresentation

  1. Unambiguous false statements of fact or law
  2. Addressed to the other party
  3. Induced him to enter into the contract

Types of misrepresentation

  1. Fraudulent misrepresentation
  2. Negligent misrepresentation at common law
  3. Negligent misrepresentation under Section 2 of the Misrepresentation Act 1967
  4. Innocent Misrepresentation

Remedies (determined by the type of misrepresentation)

  1. Damages
  2. Recission
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9
Q

What is the contractual cartography test? What case laid down the rules?

A

When judges not sure, there can refer to certain guidelines to help them decide (not mandatory/just guidelines)

Heilbut, Symons & Co v Buckleton (1913) Lord Moulton

  • It all depends on the intention (objectively ascertained) of the parties
    Whether their words and conduct indicate to a reasonable person that the statement was intended to be mere representation or, alternatively, that it was intended to be a contractual term
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10
Q

What are the 5 guidelines that judges could refer to by the Contractual Cartography Test?

A
  1. The importance of the statements to the parties
  2. The relative degree of knowledge / skill between the parties
  3. Was the statement reduced in writing
  4. The time the statement was made
  5. Accepting responsibility / advising on verification
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11
Q

What are 3 scenarios with cases that put the importance of the statements to the parties

A
  1. When buyer puts extreme importance on the statement, and would have not entered into contract if it was untrue (Bannerman v White (1861))
  2. Where buyer specifically ask the seller to confirm a statement in the catalogue before the sale (Couchman v Hill (1947))
  3. Where the statement was made not in the same transaction as the sale, this would most likely not be a term (Hopkins v Tanqueray (1854))
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12
Q

What is the principle regarding, the relative degree of knowledge / skill between the parties

A
  • When a person is more skilled and has special knowledge than the other party. If so, then judges are more inclined to infer the statement as a term.
  • Contrarily, the degree of knowledge is the same, then it is treated as representation
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13
Q

What are the cases for The relative degree of knowledge / skill between the parties

A

Oscar Chess v Williams (1957) - Representation

Dick Bentley v Harold Smith Motors Ltd (1965)

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14
Q

Oscar Chess v Williams (1957)

A

Facts

  1. C brought a second-hand Morris car on the basis it was the 1948 model
  2. C asked for the brand new Hillman Minx that was purchased from Oscar Chess
  3. D stated that it was in fact the 1948 model, and on the basis that Oscar Chess offered £290 off the purchase price
  4. 8 months later found out that it was a 1939 model, that was worth much less

Held

  1. The statement relating to the age of the car was not a term, but representation

representation

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15
Q

Dick Bentley v Harold Smith Motors Ltd (1965)

The relative degree of knowledge / skill between the parties

A

Facts

  1. Dick Bently knew the D, which was a car trader had a greater knowledge than the C
  2. C asked D to look out for a well vetted Bentley car
  3. D told him that the car had been owned by a German Baron, and had been fitted with a replacement engine and gearbox and had only done 20,000 miles since the replacement
  4. Turns out it did about 100,000 miles since the refit

Held

  1. It was a term, as Mr Smith had greater expertise and the claimant relied on it

term

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16
Q

What is the ‘rule’ called for whether the statement was reduced in writing

A

Parole evidence rule

  • Oral evidence is inadmissible (not valid) and the PCS cannot adduce extrinsic evidence to add to vary or contradict written document
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17
Q

What are the 2 scenarios and cases for whether the statement was reduced in writing?

A

Statement put in writing, then it is more likely to be terms

  • Routledge v McKay (1954) - Representation

Also possible that terms are written & oral. In this case, whatever is written then is terms, whatever is oral is representation

  • Birch v Paramount Estates (1956) - Term
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18
Q

What is the principle of ‘The time the statement was made - Any time lag between the making of the statement and the eventual conclusion of the contract

A

Intervals between the time the statements made, and the contract entered into must be taken into account - Routledge v McKay (1954)

  1. Statement that was made at the start/beginning of negotiations (Highly likely representation)
  2. If it’s during or very close to the negotiation (Then it would be terms) -Seen in Schawel v Reade (1913)
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19
Q

What is the issue of accepting resonsibility/advising on verification. What are 2 cases?

A

Whether the statement was accompanied by a recommendation that it be verified

  • Ecay v Godefroy (1947)
  • Shawel v Reade [1913]
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20
Q

Ecay v Godefroy (1947)

A

Facts

  1. Plaintiff said motor cruiser was sound
  2. Allowed the D to go check the boat by himself

Takeaway

  1. In this case, he made no responsibility, thus it was misrepresentation
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21
Q

Shawel v Reade [1913]

A

Facts

  1. C wanted to buy a stud (high-class horse)
  2. D told C that if there were any problems with the horse then he would tell the C (he put trust on him)
  3. Horse was totally unfit for stud purposes

Takeaway

  1. Statements spoken can be misrepresentation
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22
Q

What is an actionable misrepresentation?

A

Must be an unambiguous false statement of existing fact or law which was addressed to the other party which induces him to enter into the contract

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23
Q

What are the 4 parts to prove the 1st element of actionable misrepresentation?

A
  1. It must be unambiguous
  2. Representation must be made false
  3. There must be a statement made
  4. Fact or law
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24
Q

What is meant by ‘statement must be unambiguous’? What is the case that supports this rule?

1st part - actioanble misrep

A

A degree of certainty is required, statement has to be clear

  • Dimmock v Hallett [1886]
  • Where the land was described as ‘improvable’
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25
What is meant by 'representation must be made false' case? ## Footnote 2nd part - actionable misrep
1. Total untruth 2. Half truths (**Dimmock v Hallett**) 3. Change in circumstances (**With v O'Flanagan (1936)**; **Spice Girls Ltd v Aprilia World Service BV [2000]**; **Shankland & Co. v Robinson & Co – Lord Dunedin**)
26
What is meant by 'there must be a statement made'? What is the general rule? What case supports this? What is the exception? ## Footnote 3rd part - actionable misrep
General rule * There's **no duty to disclose facts** based on the principle of caveat emptor (let the buyer be aware). But **if they do start saying something, then it has to be the truth**; either by conduct or silence (**Keates v Earl of Cadogan**) Exceptions * In certain circumstances silence can amount to a ‘statement’
27
What are the 3 exceptions with cases that silence can amount to a statement ## Footnote Exception to duty to disclose facts - there must be a statement made (1st element for actionable misrep)
1. Silence or inaction in the face of the changed circumstances (**With v O’Flanagan**; **Spice Girls Ltd v Aprilia World Service BV [2000]**) 2. When the whole truth is not disclosed (half truth) (**Dimmock v Hallet (1886)**) 3. Contracts of **good faith (uberrimae fidei)**. Parties are obliged to disclose relevant information, even if it is not asked for (**Lambert v Co-operative Insurance Society Ltd [1975]**)
28
What is meant by 'fact or law'? Can an opinion be considered as a representation? ## Footnote 4th part - actionable misrep
Facts are verifiable (is consequential). Whereas opinions are not a misrepresentation (generally)
29
What is the general rule for representation of opinions? What is the case that supports the GR?
Statements of opinions **are not misrepresentation** (lay person is entitled to their own opinion) **Bisset v Wilkinson [1927]** * Facts - Gave an opinion that the land could hold a certain amount of ships * Held - Courts said it was a **mere opinion** as a general rule * Takeaway - The businessman or seller does not mean he is immediately the expert
30
What are the 2 exceptional circumstances to opinions? What are the cases for each?
1) If someone has an **expertise, skill or knowledge** (i.e.professional) - then can sue for wrong opinion * **Esso Petroleum Co Ltd v Mardon [1976]** 1. Misrepresentation. The sales representative that **worked for 40 years** gave an opinion that sales will not be affected, which was not the case (he was expected to be accurate on his opinions) 2) Person expressing the opinion is **aware of facts** which indicate that the opinion cannot be sustained * **Smith v Land House Corporation [1884]** 1. Tenant gave the opinion that he was the ‘most desirable tenant’, but the tenant was actually a bad tenant (didn’t pay on time) 2. Regarded as misrepresentation ## Footnote aware of facts has 2 sub-groups
31
What are the **2 sub-groups** under/for being aware of facts? ## Footnote fact or law - exceptions to opinions
Statement of intention Duty to act in good faith
32
What is the case for having an intention to not tell the truth? 'Statement of intention' ## Footnote Exception to opinion - fact or law
**Edgington v Fitzmaurice [1885]** * Was a misrepresentation as the opinion was a lie * The speaker represents the facts **as if she believed to be true**, but in fact **no such belief is held** ## Footnote exception to opinion - being aware of the facts
33
What is the general rule for a **duty to act in good faith**? And what are the exceptions? What are the cases for each?
General Rule * Recent cases considered the desirability of a more **general duty upon contractors** to act in good faith extending **beyond the negotiation of a contract** Case for GR * **YamSeng Pte Ltd v International Trade Corp Ltd [2013] HC** * **Novus Aviation Ltd v Alubaf Arab International Bank BSC [2016] HC** Case for exceptions * **Monde Petroleum SA v Westernzagros Ltd [2016] EWHC** - Did not need to act in good faith * **Re Compound Photonics Group Ltd [2022] EWCA** - Where it was suggested that even an express obligation to act in good faith would be interpreted narrowly
34
What is meant by 'addressed to the other party'. What are the 2 scenarios that can is valid as being addressed? What are the relevant cases? ## Footnote 2nd element - actionable misrep
Statement must be addressed to the party that is being misled Can be either 1. **Direct Communication** of the representation to the **Representee** 2. Representation addressed to a **Third Party** with the **intention that it be passed to the Representee** (Commercial Banking Co. of Sydney v RH Brown & Co)
35
What are the 6 factors in which the statement induced the party to enter into contract? What are the 5 relevant cases? ## Footnote 3rd element of actionable misrep
1) Representee must have **relied** on the statement 2) Statement must be **one of the factors** which led/induced the party to enter into the contract 3) **Doesn’t have to be the sole/main reason** to enter into the contract * **Edgington v Flitzmaurice** 4) Not sufficient, that ‘he was **supported or encouraged** in reaching his decision by the representation in question’ * **Raiffensen Zentralbank Osterreich AG v Royal Bank of Scotland Plc.** 5) Representation must play a **real and substantial** role for the claimant’s decision to enter * **JEB fasteners v MArk, Bloom & Co.** 6) Misrepresentation must be a ‘**material**’ one, where a **reasonable person** would have relied 1. Not material - BOP switches to representee * **Dadourian Group International Inc v Simms** 1. Material - BOP on representor * **Hayward v Zurich Insurance Co. Plc**
36
What are the 4 circumstance where there is **no inducement** to enter into contract? ## Footnote induced into entering contract
No inducement/reliance of misrepresentation if 1. representee was **aware of the untruth of the statement**, it has to be **clearly proven** that representee **knew so** can’t sue/take action 2. The representee would have entered the contract **even if aware of the untruth** 3. The representee **relied upon some other inducement**/made his own inquiries 4. The ‘representee’ was **not aware of the misrepresentation**
37
What is the general rule for no inducemenet if **representee was aware of the untruth**? What is the case that supports the GR? ## Footnote induce the other party to enter in contract
General Rule * if they didn’t take the chance/opportunity to verify, they **would still be able to sue** **Redgrave v Hurd [1881]** Facts 1. Representor gave statements in writing 2. But claimant didn’t check it at the time (failed to take opportunity to verify) Held 1. Failure to take the opportunity, **did not prevent** himfrom **bringing a claim for misrepresentation later on** Takeaway 1. Representor has a duty to tell the truth when they make representations once spoken 2. It is **not expected** of the representee to **verify the written statements** given afterwards
38
What are the 2 exceptional cases for **representee being aware of the untruth**? ## Footnote induced into contracting - no inducement
**Smith v Eric S Bush [1990] HL** * Held - Obiter suggested that in certain situations may be **unreasonable** for representee to **not check/verify** (situations of commercial or high value transactions) **Hayward v Zurich Insurance Co plc [2016] SC** * Facts - Insurance company’s suspicion that the victim of a workplace was greatly **exaggerating** his injury fell **short of an actual awareness** on their part that his claims were untrue * Held - When evidence of the victim’s fraud was obtained the insurance company was **able to rescind the settlement agreement** they had entered with him
39
What is the case for representee **would have entered** the contract **even if aware of the untruth** (even if he is in possession of the whole truth) ## Footnote induced into contracting
JEB Fasteners v Bloom
40
What is the case for The representee **relied upon some other inducement**/made his own inquiries?
**Attwood v Small [1838]** Held * The misrepresentations did not induce him into entering contract
41
What is the case for The ‘representee’ was **not aware of the misrepresentation**
Horsfall v Thomas [1862] Facts 1. Representee wanted to buy a gun 2. There was a defect in the gun 3. Representor put a metal plug to conceal the gun’s barrel (was a misrepresentation by conduct) 4. However, the representee didn’t check whether Held 1. Since the representee **did not even check the gun**, he **couldn’t even be induced/influence** into entering into contract
42
What are the 4 catergories/types of misrepresentation?
* Fraudulent * Negligence under common law * Statutory misrepresentation under **Misrepresentation Act 1967** * Innocent
43
What is fradulent misrepresentation? What case mentions the 3 elements?
Tort of deceit - a deliberate intention to **deceive** the representee 3 elements/propositions - (**Derry v Peek [1889] HL Lord Herschell**) 1. Knowingly or; 2. Without belief in its truth or; 3. Recklessly/carelessly whether it is true or not - without regard to its truth
44
What is the general rule and the case for fraudulent misrepresentation?
If fraud is proven, motif of the guilty person is **immaterial** **Polhill v Walter** * the representor **knew** that the statement was false but made it for the **benefit of his principle** and to **benefit himself**
45
What is the bruden of proof for fradulent misrepresentation?
**Claimant/representee** bares the burden to prove fraud * Fraud is a **serious allegation** and it is difficult to prove * Cannot simply allege unless there is good grounds for it
46
What is negliegence under common law? What is the case that lays down the scope? What are the 3 elements that must be established by the claimant to prove negligent misrepresentation?
**Hedley Byrne v Heller (1964) HL** * The maker of the statement and the person relying on it are in a **‘Special Relationship’** giving rise to a **duty of care** under the principles of and the maker of the statement acts in breach of this duty Claimant must estbalish 1. A defendant owed them a **duty of care** 2. There was **sufficient proximity** between them and the defendant (there was a ‘**special relationship**’ between them) 3. The defendant **breached** their duty of care and did not exercise reasonable care and skill
47
What are the 3 principle factors for negligent misrepresentation under common law?
1. **Knowledge** of the representor 2. **Purpose** for which the statement was made 3. Must be **reasonable** for the representee to **rely on the representor’s statement**
48
What is the section and Act for statory misrepresentation? What does the section state?
**Section 2(1)** of the **Misrepresentation act 1967** - Where a **person has entered into a contract after a misrepresentation** has been made to him by another party thereto and as a result thereof he has **suffered loss**, then, if the **person making the misrepresentation would be liable to damages in respect thereof had the misrepresentation been made fraudulently**, that person shall be so liable notwithstanding that the misrepresentation was not made fraudulently, unless he proves that he had reasonable ground to believe and did believe up to the time the contract was made the facts represented were true
49
What must the representor prove under **section 2(1)** to not be liable for statutory misrepresentation
When misrepresentation is made from one party to another which induced him to enter contract (actionable misrepresentation), the party making the misrepresentation is liable to the other in damages **unless he can prove** 1. He had **reasonable grounds to believe** to make the representation 2. Did **believe up to the point that the contract was made** that his statement was true
50
Who bares the burden of proof to prove statutory misrepresentation **section 2(1)**
Burden of Proof Representor (defendant) 1. Shifts to the **representor** to prove that he had the **2 components/elements to disprove** his actions (difficult to prove/heavy burden) Representee (claimant) 1. **Claimant** - Prove that **misrepresentation was made** and that it induced the contract (actionable misrepresentation)
51
What is the case for Statutory misrepresentation under **seciton 2(1) Misrepresentation Act 1967**
**Howard Marine & Dredging Co v Ogden & Sons (1978)** Facts 1. Defendant (representee) wanted to know the true weight of the ship 2. Claimant (manager) said that the deadweight was for each capacity was 1600 tons. Was actually 1055 tons 4. D used the barges for 6 months and discovered the actual weight 5. Refused to continue to pay hire charges Held 1. **Favoured the defendant** that there was misrepresentation 2. Should have checked the ships document ## Footnote IMPORTANT
52
What is innocent misrepresentation?
Where maker of the statement **genuinely believes it is true** and **does not act negligently** (at common law or under statute, as above) in making it then the action only lies for innocent misrepresentation
53
What are the 2 remedies for misrepresentation?
Damages Recession
54
How does damages apply for misrepresentation?
How much damages representee gets back, is determined by the **type of misrepresentation**
55
What are the damages for **Fraudulent Misrepresentation**?
Damages come from the **Tort of Deceit** * Compensation would put the claimant back into **original position**, where misrepresentation had not been made * On the basis of **Reliance Loss** (not Expectation Loss)
56
What is the **amount** claimable for damages for **fraudulent misrepresentation**?
Amount * **All losses/damages** which are directly attributable to the deceit are recoverable (whether or not D foresaw the loss) * Normal rules of **‘remoteness’ does not apply** (e.g. D didn’t foresee such loss possible)
57
What are the 2 cases for 'remoteness' not applying for fraudulent misrepresentation?
**Doyle v Olby (Ironmongers) Ltd [1969]** **Smith New Court Securities Ltd Scrimgeour Vickers Ltd**
58
What are 2 important aspects to note about fraudulent misrerpesentation?
* Contributory Negligence **does not apply** * **Exemplary/ punitive/aggravated damages** can be awarded
59
Can one claim for loss of profits under fraudulent misrepresentation? What is the generaly rule? What was the case that was the exception for this?
Claimant **can’t claim the loss of profits** (expected profits/expectation loss) Exception * **East v Maurer [1991]**
60
What are the damages for **negligent misrepresentation under common law**? Does the test of 'remoteness' apply? What case supports this? Does contributory negligence apply? What case supports this?
Aim * To put claimant at original position (**Reliance Loss**) Amount * Liable for all losses which were **reasonably foreseeable consequences** of the misrepresentation * Rule of ‘**remoteness**’ (**The Wagon Mound (No.1))** Note * If the representee contributed or was at fault of the loss, damages can be reduced - **Contributory Negligence** (**Gran Gelato Ltd v Richcliff (1992**)) * Highly unlikely, court may award exemplary/punitive damages
61
What are the damages for **Negligent Misrepresentation under Section 2(1) Misrepresentation Act 1967**? What is the case, and what does it state about negligent misrepresentation under section 2(1)
**Royscott Trust Ltd Rogerson [1991] CA** * Courts would treat the damages as if the misrepresentation was made **fraudulently** (controversial conclusion) Amount * **All losses** are recoverable (calculated as per fraud) Note * 'Remoteness' test / reasonably foreseeable principle **does not apply**
62
Can **contributory negligence**, for negligent misrepresentation under **Section 2(1)** be claimed for damages? What are the 2 cases regarding contributory negligence?
**Cannot claim contributory negligence** (as already calculated as fraud) * As it would would cause a problem, as fraud does not take into account contributory negligence * (**Standard Chartered Bank v Pakistan National Shipping (No 2) (2003)**) **Gran Gelato v Richcliff (Group Ltd [1992]** * Suggested that damages under **section 2(1**) might be reduced to include contributory negligence * Held that they **couldn’t do so**
63
What are the damages for **innocent misrepresentation** traditionally (common law)?
Traditionally - **common law** * Damages not available * Only **rescission** available * Courts more lenient, they said representation is a term, and thus a **breach** or the representation is a **collateral contract**
64
What are the damages now for **innocent misrepresentation** after Section 2(2) Misrepresentation Act 1967? ## Footnote NOTE: THIS IS **SECTION 2(2**)
Courts have discretion to award **damages** in lieu (instead) of **rescission** 1. Must choose 1 (can’t choose both) 2. Discretionary (not as of right) * Courts have discretion to do what is **equitable** * Must consider the nature of the misrepresentation in relation to the **matter** and **loss** that would be caused to parties if the contract was upheld or rescinded * Depends on **facts of the case** Note * **William Sindall plc v Cambridgeshire CC, Lord Hoffman** - Held that D can’t choose to rescind, only could recover as damages
65
Can claimant claim for damages after the right to rescind has lapsed its time for innocent misrepresentation? What are the cases that support your answer?
Yes, claimant **does not lose the right** to claim damages (so long as he had the right to rescind in the past) * **Thomas Witter Ltd v TBP Industries** No, claimant **lost the right** to rescind, loses rights to damages as well * **Govt of Zanzibar v British Aerospace (Lancester House) Ltd**
66
What is recission?
Recissio is available for **all types** of misrepresentation. * Once obtaining recession, validity is set aside, which puts **both parties** at their **original position** as per before the contract existed * Any goods or money exchanged must be **returned** to parties
67
What is the nature of recission?
* Renders a contract ‘**voidable**’ (rather than void) * Meaning that contract is **valid until it is set/put aside** at the option of representee (by obtaining rescission) ## Footnote **voidable** = valid contract until obtained recission (recission) **void** = contract never existed (doctrine of mistake)
68
What is the obligatory process of obtaining recission?
Recission must be **sought by the claimant** * **Does not occur automatically** * Claimant must **elect** or **affirm** to rescind the contract Recession must be **given notice** to the other party
69
What are the 4 limitations/bars to recission?
**Affirmation** * Claimant is **aware** that can rescind, but **chooses to continue** the contract (‘affirming’ it) **Lapse of time** * **Significant** lapse of time between the making of the contract and the discovery of the misrepresentation (unless its fraud) **Restitution is impossible** * Where the good is **unable to go back to original value/state** (e.g. using a car, value has already gone down) **Third party rights** ## Footnote 3rd party rights - refer to mistake
70
What is the case for affirmation? ## Footnote A bar to recission
Claimant is aware that can rescind, but chooses to continue the contract (‘affirming’ it) * **Long v Lloyd [1938]**
71
What are the cases for lapse of time? ## Footnote A bar to recission
Significant lapse of time between the making of the contract and the discovery of the misrepresentation (unless its fraud) * **Leaf v International [1950]** Fraudulent case * **Salt v Stratstone Specialist Ltd (2015) CA**
72