Chapter 7 - Memory Flashcards
Memory
A collection of several systems that store information in different forms for differing amounts of time
Stores
retain information in memory without using it for any specific purpose
3 stores: STM, LTM, and sensory memory
Control processes
shift information from one memory store to another
Long Term Memory (LTM)
hold info for extended periods of time - if not permanently
has no known capacity limitations (unlike STM)
Theories on organization of info in LTM
1 - semantic categories
2 - sounds of the word & how it looks
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
when you are able to retrieve similar sounding words or words that start with the same letter but can’t quite retrieve the word you actually want -> nearby items/nodes in neural network are activated
relates to sound of word/how it looks way of organization LTM
retrieval
the process of accessing memorized information and returning it to short-term memory
serial position effect
in general, most people will recall the first few items from a list and the last few items, but only an item or two from the middle
Ebbinghaus
Primacy effect
The fact that the first few items of a list remembered relatively easily
In serial position effect
Recency effect
Fact that the last few items of a list are also remembered well
Serial position effect
proactive interference
a process in which the first information learned (e.g. in a list of words) occupies memory, leaving fewer resources left to remember the newer information
retroactive interference
the most recently learned information overshadows some older memories that have not yet made it into long-term memory
Talmi FMRI expirement on brain regions responsible for diff forms of memory
- Hippocampus (formation of LTM) active for info early in the Serial Position Curve
- Brain areas associated with sensory information more active for items at the end of the serial position curve
Hypothesis: 2 different neural systems that work simultaneously to produce serial position curve
Working memory
a model of short-term remembering that includes a combination of memory components that can temporarily store small amounts of information for a short period of time
central executive
control centre: decides which of the working-memory stores is most important at any given moment
phonological loop
a storage component of working memory that relies on rehearsal and that stores information as sounds, or an auditory code
word-length effect
shows that people remember more one-syllable words in a short-term memory task
visuospatial sketchpad
a storage of working memory that maintains visual images and spatial layouts in a visuospatial code
chunking: feature binding: combining visual features into single unit
episodic buffer
a storage component of working memory that combines images and sounds from the other two components into coherent, story-like episodes
Seems to hold 10 pieces of info
central executive
control centre of the working memory; coordinates attention and the exchange of information among the three storage components
eg. seeing an alphabet - phonological, but if unfamiliar sounds, visosp.
declarative (explicit) memories
memories that we are consciously aware of and that can be verbalized, incl. facts ab/ the world and our own personal experiences
nondeclarative (implicit) memories
incl. actions and behaviours that you can remember and perform w/o awareness
episodic memories
declarative memories for personal experiences that seem to be organized around “episodes” and are recalled from a first-person perspective
semantic memories
declarative memories that include facts about the world
procedural memory
learned patterns of muscle movements (motor memory)
Long-term potentiation
demonstrates that there is an enduring increase in connectivity and transmission of neural signals
consolidation
the process of converting short-term memories into long-term memories in the brain
use it or lose it
hippocampus contributes to future memory consolidation
amnesia
a profound loss of at least one form of memory
anterograde amnesia
the inability to form new memories of events occuring after a brain injury
storage
refers to the time & manner in/wh info. is retained between encoding and retrieval
stored memories can be updated regularly (e.g. reminded of a past event)
reconsolidaition
in/wh the hippocampus functions to update, strengthen, or modify existing long-term memories
cross-cortical storage
Long-term declarative memories are distributed throughout the cortex of the brain (rather than being localized in one region)
retrograde amnesia
condition in/wh memory for the events preceding trauma or injury is lost
maintenance rehearsal
prolonging exposure to information by repeating it
elaborative rehearsal
prolonging exposure to information by thinking about its meaning
LOP (levels of processing) framework
Understanding that our ability to recall information is most directly related to how that information was initially processed
shallow processing
LOP framework
involves encoding more superficial properties of a stimulus, such as the sound or spelling of a word
deep processing
encoding information about an item’s meaning or its function
self-reference effect
occurs when you think about information in terms of how it relates/how useful it is to you -> will lead to better remembering
recognition
involves IDing a stimulus or piece of information when it is presented to you
eg multiple choice Qs
recall
retrieving information when asked, but without that information being present during the retrieval process
eg short answer Qs
encoding specificity principle
Tulvig & Thompson 1973
states that retrieval is most effective when the conditions at the time of encoding and retrieval are the same
context-dependent memory
idea that retrieval is more effective when it takes place in the same physical setting as encoding
shows that elements of setting can serve as retrieval cues
state-dependent memory
retrieval is more effective when your internal state matches the state you were in during encoding
eg. annebriated guy
mood-dependent memory
people remember better if their mood at retrieval matches their mood during encoding
weapon focus
the tendency to focus on a weapon at the expense of peripheral information, including the identity of the person holding the weapon
focus on emotional content of a scene: forms the centre field of vision
bio. on emotional memories
amgdala –> alters activity of temporal-lobe areas that send input to the hippocampus
flashbulb memory
an extremely vivid and detailed memory about an events and the conditions surrounding how one learned about the event
recollections of location, what was happening around, emotional reaction
not neccisarily more accurate than regular memories
the forgetting curve
most forgetting occurs right away and that rate of forgetting eventually slows to the point where one does not seem to forget at all
mnemonic
a technique intended to improve memory for specific information
method of loci
menomic that connects words to be remembered to locations along a familiar path
acronyms
pronounceable words whose letters represent the initials of an important phrase or set of items
ROY G BIV
first-letter technique
uses the first letters of a set of items to spell out words that form a sentence
Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge
Dual coding
occurs when information is stored in more than one form
eg sight and sound -> advantage: twice as much info is stored
desirable difficulties
techniques that make studying slower and more effortful, but result in better overall remembering
testing effect
the finding that taking practice tests can improve exam performance, even without additional studying
schema
organized cluster of memories that constitute a person’s knowledge or beliefs about events, objects, and ideas
familiar e/o: schemas affect our expectations, what we notice & remember
eg paragraph ab/ doing laundry: with context, it is easier to remember (activated laundry schema)
however, schemas can also cause us to fill in memory gaps with info that is not entirely accurate
products of culture & experience
constructive memory
a process by which we first recall a generalized schema and then add in specific details
when memory fails, we often mistakenly recall events acc. to our schemas
infantile amnesia
phenomenon that you do not have any personal or autobiographical memories from before your third birthday
false memory
remembering events that did not occur, or incorrectly recalling details of an event
misinformation effect
when information occurring after an event becomes part of the memory for that event
imagination inflation
the increased confidence in a false memory of an event following repeated imagination of the event
guided imagery
a technique used by some clinicians (& police investigators) to help people recover details of events that they are unable to remember
DRM procedure
Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm
participants study a list of highly related words called semantic associates –> word that would be most obvious (critical lure) is missing from the list
when participants remember critical lure, it is called an intrusion -> false memory sneaking into an existing memory
recovered memory
memory of a traumatic event that is suddenly recovered after blocking the memory of that event for a long period of time
recovered memory controversy
a heated debate among psychologists about the validity of recovered memories
