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PSY140 Intro to Psych > chapter 7 learning > Flashcards

chapter 7 learning Flashcards

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1
Q

How many communities were created based on Skinner’s science of behaviour?

A

4.0

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2
Q

Some skills are innate

A

therefore are not a result of learning

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3
Q

Reflexes

A

Reflexive responses are controlled by environmental events that precede them.

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4
Q

operant conditioning

A

through rewards and punishment

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5
Q

social (vicarious learning)

A

Social (or vicarious) learning is when we learn something by watching others. Your cat might learn to open doors by watching you, and your brother might learn to sled just like you do.

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6
Q

latent learning

A

occurs when we learn something but don’t show it until we have a reason to use our new knowledge. You might not think you know where the fuse box is in the house, but you can probably quickly navigate to it if the power goes out.

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7
Q

Psychology has identified three major types of learning. Which of the following is true in reference to the three types of learning?

A

The three types of learning are classical, operant, and social.

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8
Q

(Pavlovian) Classical conditioning

A

through reinforcement

involves stimuli and responses

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9
Q

Stimulus

A

anything that can be detected, measurable, and evoke a responses

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10
Q

Learning

A

broad and permanent change in behaviour and not due to drugs

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11
Q

Neutral Stimulus

A

does not naturally elicit a response

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12
Q

Unconditioned stimulus

A

Naturally elicits a response

i.e. food

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13
Q

Unconditioned response

A

natural response to biologically relevant stimulus

i.e. salivation

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14
Q

Conditioned stimulus

A

Elicits response due to learning

i.e. bell

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15
Q

Conditioned response

A

Learned response to env stimulus

i.e. salivation to bell, before even food

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16
Q

Reflex and pavlovian conditioning

A

takes advantage of a reflex and involves associating a previously neutral stimulus with an already meaningful stimulus

UCS + NS –> UCR
therefore NS –> CR

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17
Q

Before conditioning

A

UCS –> UCR and NS –> No CR

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18
Q

During conditioning

A

NS + UCS –> UCR

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19
Q

After conditioning

A

CS (previously NS) –> CR

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20
Q

Temporal Relationships

A

See document

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21
Q

Two components that are associated in Pavlovian conditioning.

A

Association is what we learned.

conditional stimulus predicts the unconditional stimulus.

The conditional stimulus forces the conditional response and the unconditional stimulus forces the unconditional response; these stimulus-response pairs are not learned.

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22
Q

Sort these Pavlovian conditioning components in order for backward conditioning.

A

Unconditional stimulus

Unconditional response

Conditional stimulus

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23
Q

Taste aversion learning

trace conditioning

A

Associations develop with a single pairing

The taste of food is separated from sickness by several hours and yet, we will feel nauseated the next time we smell or taste thet food

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24
Q

What is the response that indicates that flavour aversion learning is occurring for cancer patients?

A

Anticipatory vomiting and nausea

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25
Q

pavlovian extinction

A

weakening conditional response over time

repeatedly presenting a conditional stimulus without an unconditional stimulus

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26
Q

In the movie A Clockwork Orange, Alex receives aversion therapy—pairing a nausea-inducing drug with violent films and Beethoven’s music—so that he might not have violent thoughts and commit violent crimes once released from prison. Alex does become ill when he thinks about or is put into situations in which he could be violent, but he eventually stops feeling ill once he is forced to listen to Beethoven for many hours. What Pavlovian phenomenon has occurred to produce Alex’s reduction in responding?

A

Extinction

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27
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

re-emergence of conditioned response after a rest period

example: cancer patients

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28
Q

Sort the Pavlovian conditioning phases in the correct order of acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery.

A

Light + food - pecking occurs to both
Light alone - pecking slowly diminishes
Rest period without light or food
Light alone - pecking returns

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29
Q

Stimulus generalization

A

involved responding similarly to conceptually or physically similar stimuli

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30
Q

Stimulus discrimination

A

responding differently to different events

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31
Q

Higher order conditioning

A

a neutral stimulus is systematically and repeatedly paired with a conditional stimulus that reliably elicits the conditional response.

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32
Q

Sara really likes her favorite band. She buys their songs, views videos of the group on the internet, and would love to go to their concerts. She feels uplifted and good after listening to their music. The band’s music is used as background for commercials advertising a brand of coffee. Recently, Sara started drinking the coffee even though she used to prefer tea. Which of the following explains why Sara now drinks that particular brand of coffee? There may be more than one correct answer.

A

Classical conditioning
Higher order conditioning
Stimulus generalisation

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33
Q

match the terms

A 
CS - "Learning"
UCS - Noise
UCR - Responding to the noise
CR - Responding to the word "Learning"
Irrelevant stimulus - Pavlov
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34
Q

little albert

A

Albert was shown a variety of animals such as dogs, rabbits, white rats, and objects such as fire and a fur coat. Albert did not seem afraid of them, as you will see see in the video below. In fact, Albert seemed to like the white rat.

In the presence of a neutral white rat, they struck an iron bar with a hammer, creating a loud, unexpected noise that made Little Albert cry. After several pairings of the noise with the sight of the white rat, Little Albert would start crying at just the sight of the white rat; the rat had become a conditional stimulus for the loud noise as an unconditional stimulus. Little Albert demonstrated stimulus generalisation—crying and crawling away from objects similar to the white rat

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35
Q

After developing a fear of the white rat, Little Albert also exhibited fear responses to other white objects that had not been paired with loud noise. This illustrates which phenomenon associated with classical conditioning?

A

Stimulus generalisation

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36
Q

Which researcher influenced Watson’s approach to psychology?

A

Pavlov

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37
Q

phobias

A

intense, unrealistic fears directed toward people, objects, or situations

(conditional fears taken to extreme levels)

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38
Q

Operant conditioning

A

based on previous experience

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39
Q

Thorndike + law of effect

A

interested in how consequences of behaviour influence subsequent behaviour

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40
Q

stomping in

A

association with something pleasant

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41
Q

What would Thorndike say his cats learn about in their puzzle box experiment?

A

In the presence of a pedal in a puzzle box, press it

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42
Q

What is the “dead man test”?

A

A term used to help define behaviour, if a dead man can do it- it is not behaviour

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43
Q

reinforcement

A

increase probability of behaviour

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44
Q

punishment

A

decreases probability of behaviour

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45
Q

negative reinforcement is negative in the sense that…

A

The behaviour results in the removal of a consequence stimulus

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46
Q

Escape

A

is a situation in which the aversive stimulus is already present and a response removes or stops the otherwise ongoing aversive stimulus

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47
Q

avoidance

A

is a situation in which the aversive stimulus is not currently present but will occur unless you produce a response to cancel (or omit) the scheduled aversive event.

i.e. putting up a sign to avoid cutting in line

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48
Q

discriminative stimuli for reinforcement

A

Cues that signal a reward

i.e. order movie tickets here

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49
Q

discriminative stimuli for extinction

A

Cues that signal no upcoming outcome

i.e. no shoes = no entry

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50
Q

discriminative stimuli for punishment

A

Cues that signal a noxious stimulus

i.e. danger: electric fence
specifies punishment

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51
Q

Shaping

A

involves selecting and reinforcing more complex responses – occurs in steps

i.e. teaching someone how to brush their teeth in 4 steps … running toothbrush in water etc

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52
Q

Reinforcers

A

events or stimuli that follow behaviour increase likelihood of response/behaviour

can be positive - i.e. giving trophy after winning

or negavtive - washing hands after touching a dirty surface

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53
Q

Shariq is a young boy who has developed the habit of throwing rocks. His father started counting the number of times Shariq throws rocks (baseline). Shariq threw rocks 4 times on Monday, 4 times on Tuesday, and 5 times on Thursday. Starting Friday, throwing rocks resulted in a reprimand. Shariq threw rocks 10 times on Friday, 12 times on Saturday, and 12 times on Sunday. Although Shariq’s father thinks that reprimands could be _______ , it would appear, based on Shariq’s behaviour, the reprimands are actually acting as _______ for rock throwing.

A

positive punishment; positive reinforcement

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54
Q

primary reinforcers

A

generally are stimuli/events needed to maintain life: food, air, water etc.

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55
Q

Secondary

A

consumables - food not eaten for nutrients (e.g., junk food)
tangibles - objects you can touch (e.g., toys)
exchangeables - value from bartering (e.g., tokens, vouchers, chit)
social - comes from another person (e.g., attention, praise, eye contact)
activity - the behaviour produces its own reinforcer (e.g., playing sports, playing an instrument, drawing)
generalised conditioned reinforcers - objects traded for several other reinforcers (e.g., euros, yen, pesos, dollars)

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56
Q

Which of the following types of positive reinforcers is least likely to temporarily lose its reinforcing capacity even though one has “gotten it” recently?

A

Consumable secondary reinforcers

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57
Q

immediacy

A

consequences delivered soon after the response

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58
Q

power

A

means consequences should be big enough to support behaviour

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59
Q

contingency

A

means that there should be an if-then relationship between the response and consequence

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60
Q

premack principle

reinfrocer efficacy

A

this creates a reinfrocer because the only way we can perform a preferred activity (i.e. playing) is to first perform a less enjoyable activity (i.e. doing chores)

increases less preferred action (

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61
Q

“Grandma’s Rule” requires that children complete a less desirable action before being permitted to engage in a more desirable action. Which of the follow statements are true? (Select all that apply.)

A

The more desirable action is an activity secondary positive reinforcer.
c
Grandma’s Rule is another name for the Premack principle.
d
The less preferred action in the example will be increased.

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62
Q

Sort the schedules of reinforcement in order from lowest to highest rate of responding.

A

Fixed interval
Variable interval
Fixed ratio
Variable ratio

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63
Q

latent

A

is learning that we can’t see until we’re motivated to show it, that is, there is no change in our performance until we receive a reward

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64
Q

Annalise had been driving through campus for three years, but she didn’t think she knew it very well until she started giving tours to prospective students and their parents. What phenomenon might Annalise be demonstrating?

A

latent learning

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65
Q

bandura

A

observational learning

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66
Q

bandura

A

bobo-clown

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67
Q

factors affecting observation

A

retention phase
production phase
motivational phase

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68
Q

Neil saw his dad shake hands with a friend, and now Neil shakes hands with everyone he sees. How did Neil learn to shake hands with others?

A

social learning

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69
Q 
Biological preparedness
(belongingness)
A

refers to the fact that some stimuli are more likely than others to become conditional stimuli

i.e. easier to condition pavlovian fear to snakes and spiders than flowers and tones

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70
Q

Learned helplessness

A

s is a state that occurs after a person has experienced a stressful situation repeatedly. They come to believe that they are unable to control or change the situation, so they do not try — even when opportunities for change become available.

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71
Q

Based on our discussion of memories about your birthday and memories about your lunch a few weeks ago, what can we likely say about memory?

A

We seem to remember some events better than others

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72
Q

Which of these phrases does NOT illustrate how we often talk about thoughts and memories as if they were physical objects?

A

“put yourself in my shoes”

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73
Q

failure of search

A

inability to remember something

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74
Q

What does the coin example above illustrate?

A

a failure of search

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75
Q

Search metaphor

A

memory is like a library

memory in day-to-day life

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76
Q

Memory as the combination of both the information in the environment and what you have stored shows how memory does which of the following?

A

helps form an adaptive response

reconstruction metaphor for memory

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77
Q

Which of the following is NOT an example of the mind being represented as a metaphorical space?

A

“I’m having trouble grasping that idea.”

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78
Q

encoding

A

process for how our brains commit an event to memory

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79
Q

encoding problem

A

problem our brains have to solve in order to encode info

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80
Q

Storage

A

storing of memory

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81
Q

Storage problem

A

inability to store memories

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82
Q

sensory memory

A

a system that keeps info translated by the senses briefly active in a relatively unaltered, unexamined form

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83
Q

iconic memory

A

visual system and the fleeting afterimage,

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84
Q

Echoic memory

A

auditory system, echoes

last longer than iconic

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85
Q 
immediate memory
(short-term / working memory)
A

system that actively holds info at the front of your mind

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86
Q

inner voice

A

evidence that info in immediate memory can be represented verbally

i.e. “A” and “J”

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87
Q

inner eye

A

visual coding to guide us

i.e. imagining the space

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88
Q

Characteristics of immediate

memory

A

Duration

Capacity

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89
Q

Rehearsal

A

process of repeating information

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90
Q

memory span

A

capacity of immediate memory

seven plus or minus two

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91
Q

chunking

A

strategy to increase capacity of memory capacity by breaking “things” into chunks, making it meaningful and therefore easier to remember

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92
Q

phronological loop

A

where auditory and verbal info is temporarily stored and manipulated

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93
Q

visuospatial sketchpad

A

representation of inner eye

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94
Q

central executive

A

direct the flow of info

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95
Q

central executive

A

thought to control the phronological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

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96
Q

The inner ____is to the visuospatial sketchpad as the inner____ is to the phonological loop.

A

eye, voice

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97
Q

After roughly how many seconds does the amount of information in immediate memory begin to drop off precipitously?

A

3

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98
Q

Long term memory

A

systems are what we use to store and recall info over lengthy periods of time

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99
Q

episodic memories

A

recollection of specific events - vivid

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100
Q

semantic memories

A

general knowledge of info

- facts etc.

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101
Q

procedural memory

A

about process

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102
Q

Trisha is trying to remember what color the friendship bracelet that her best friend Alex gave her in second grade was. What kind of memory is Trisha using?

A

Episodic memory

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103
Q

What type of long-term memory would you most likely use to answer the question, “What is the third planet from the sun?”

A

semantic memory

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104
Q

elaborative rehearsal

A

process used to keep info active in immediate memory

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105
Q

deep processing

A

making meaningful connections to existing knowledge

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106
Q

shallow processing

A

encoding based on surface characteristics

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107
Q

What type of processing task is counting the number of vowels in a word?

A

Shallow

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108
Q

Types of elaboration

A

Imagery
organisation
Distinctiveness
Self-reference

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109
Q

Types of elaboration

A

Imagery
organisation
Distinctiveness
Self-reference

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110
Q

Imagery

A

Thinking about the coppery smell of a penny

weakness –> tend to be generalised

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111
Q

Organisation

A

Thinking about how pennies¸ dimes¸ and nickels are all American coins.

weakness –> within-group mistakes are often made

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112
Q

Distinctiveness

A

Thinking about how pennies are the only kinds of common American coinage that aren’t silver in color.

weakness –> potentially time-consuming

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113
Q

Self-reference

A

Thinking about the penny you picked up this morning on your way to class.

weakness –> potentially culture-bound to individualistic cultures

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114
Q

Massed practice

A

Cramming (i.e. students frantically studying for exams by rereading their notes the night before the exam

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115
Q

Spacing effect

A

spacing out learning

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116
Q

Mnemonics

A

provides a framework to engage in meaningful processing

i.e. guitar strings ACEG -
all cows eat grass

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117
Q

Retrieval practice

A

“testing effect”

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118
Q

Which effective encoding strategy is an attempt to help us encode information in ways that our brains are designed to use?

A

adaptive memory strategies

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119
Q

Which effective encoding strategy uses chunking?

A

Acronyms and initializations

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120
Q

Arya is trying to remember a list of names. She rehearses the list of names to herself, imagining the person’s face as she says their name while also thinking of the last time she interacted with that person. What two types of elaboration is Arya using to remember her list of names?

A

Imagery and self-reference

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121
Q

retrieval problem

A

inability to retrieve info

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122
Q

Cues

A

pieces of info that help us remember events from the past

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123
Q

Free recall

A

recall without help

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124
Q

cued recall

A

recall with given cues

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125
Q

Encoding specificity principle

A

means a retrieval cue is only useful as long as it matches how a piece of information was originally encoded

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126
Q

What type of long-term memory would you most likely use to answer the question, “What is the third planet from the sun?”

A

When he is drinking

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127
Q

Transfer-appropriate processing

A

engaging in the same processes when encoding

i.e. chewing gum while studying, then chewing gum during the test

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128
Q

Explicit memory

A

intentionally trying to recall information

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129
Q

Implicit memory

A

recalling information without consciously realising or intending it

i.e. Exposing participants to a list of color names, then seeing if they complete the word stem “GRE__” as “GREEN.”

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130
Q

Because Helga studied a list of words by considering whether they rhymed with the word “train,” she tests herself on the list of words by writing a rhyming poem about trains. Which of the following is Helga exemplifying?

A

Transfer- appropriate processing

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131
Q

Seven sins of memory

A

term for memory errors

two types:
Errors of omission
Errors of comission

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132
Q

Errors of omission

A

memory errors where information cannot be brought to mind

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133
Q

Errors of commission

A

memory errors where wrong or unwanted information is brought to mind

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134
Q

Jordan is trying to remember the name of their third grade teacher; while they can remember her face, they can’t seem to remember her name. Meanwhile, Polly is mixing up her third and fourth grade teachers, getting them backward. Who is committing an error of omission?

A

Jordan

135
Q

Transcience

A

describes how memory for particular event of piece of info tends to degrade over time — simply what we call forgetting

136
Q

Retroactive interference

A

when newly learned info in makes it more difficult to recall older information, and happens all day, every da.

–> it isn’t time that causes forgetting, but instead the constant flow of new info that bombards us every minute

137
Q

Proactive intereference

A

is the opposite, old memories interfere with recall of new memories

138
Q

Misattribution

A

occurs when we incorrectly recall the source of the info we are trying to remember

139
Q

deja vu

A

we can’t remember the source of the information rather than misattribute it

140
Q

Flashbulb memories

A

are memories for events that are both surprising and particularly significant

141
Q

suggestibility

A

misremembered to have been suggested by an outside source

142
Q

misinformation effect

A

refers to the tendency for post-event information to interfere with the memory of the original event.

143
Q

Bias

A

influence by knowledge and beliefs

144
Q

schemas

A

are highly organised sets of facts and knowledge about specific kinds of information.

145
Q

persistence

A

occur when the memory system fails to prevent the recall of a memory that is unwanted

146
Q

Fill in the blanks: _____ are complex knowledge structures that help us put information in context. However, they often lead to _____.

A

Schemas; over-generalisation

147
Q

hyperthymesia

A

an exceptionally rare medical condition that leads to near perfect autobiographical recall

–> but can be a curse i.e. can remember every time her mother called her fat

148
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

inability to remember past memories

i.e. often portrayed in movies

149
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

inability to make new memories

150
Q

Why did Henry Molaison have his hippocampus removed?

A

He suffered from severe seizures

151
Q

What forms of amnesia did H. M. have?

A

Both

152
Q

Milner demonstrated that H.M. could remember a number for up to fifteen minutes by repeating it to himself constantly. This best demonstrates what?

A

The ability of rehearsal to maintain information

153
Q

Data regarding H. M. provided evidence for the distinction between ______________.

A

Immediate and long-term memory

154
Q

According to the reading, what one-word response is NOT responsible for the sin of transience?

A

decay

time

155
Q

What physical attributes appear to explain hyperthymesia?

A

An enlarged amygdala
c
Additional connections between the amygdala and hippocampus

156
Q

Hyperthymesia is primarily ____________.

A

Near perfect autobiographical memory

157
Q

Dispositional or internal causes

A

encompass personality traits and characteristics of the person

158
Q

situational or external causes

A

are a function of the environment

159
Q

Kelley’s covariation model

A

consistency
Distinctiveness
Consensus

160
Q

Consistency

A

looks at how a person acts in the same situation/context across time

161
Q

Distinctiveness

A

person’s actions must also be considered, which determines whether the person acts in the same

162
Q

Consensus

A

extent to which an individual’s behaviour resembles the behaviour of others

163
Q

Based on the information provided, which of the following best represents the desired normative behaviour?

A

consensus

164
Q

fundamental attribution error (FAE)

A

explains how we assign attributes to self and others.

165
Q

actor-observer bias.

A

is a term in social psychology that refers to a tendency to attribute one’s own actions to external causes while attributing other people’s behaviors to internal causes

166
Q

self-serving bias

A

occurs when individuals credit their successes to internal/disposition causes and their failures to external/situational causes.

By perceiving your successes to be internally derived and your failures to be the result of external causes, your self-esteem is preserved

167
Q

false consensus effect,

A

occurs when we overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs

i.e. people assume that the ideas and opinions they embrace are not only correct and sound, but also shared by others around them

168
Q

Which of the following best represents the fundamental attribution error?

A

Keanu failed the exam because he is lazy.

169
Q

impression formation

A

how we formulate opinions about individuals or groups

170
Q

first impression

A

tend to be enduring, it is your quick assessment when meeting someone – usually seconds

171
Q

primacy effect

A

he tendency for facts, impressions, or items that are presented first to be better learned or remembered than material presented later in the sequence.

172
Q

confirmation bias

A

is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one’s prior beliefs or values.

173
Q

When you meet someone for the first time, how quickly do you form an impression of that person?

A

Within seconds to minutes of meeting

174
Q

If your lecturer perceives you as a mature and responsible student, what would they most likely think if you came to class late?

A

The lecturer thinks that there must be some extenuating circumstances that caused your late arrival.

175
Q

Self-fulfilling prophecy,

A

process through which an originally false expectation leads to its own confirmation.

i. e. being positive leads to positive results
i. e. “saying you’re bad” - replacing this statement with positive ones lead to students with open minds, this approach helps them learn

176
Q

You go to a party with friends and you feel confident, knowing you are looking good in the new clothes you bought. According to the self-fulfilling prophecy, which of the following would be most likely to occur?

A

You talk to new people, socialise, and enjoy the party.

177
Q

With regard to impression formation, even if your initial impression is negative, it can be easily changed if subsequent exposures are positive.

A

false

178
Q

Social influence

A

is the process in which our thoughts and actions are shaped by the presence of others

179
Q

Social norms

A

are prescribed behaviours that vary across contexts, cultures, and time.

180
Q

Western Cultures

A

individualistic, so the focus is on individual gains over the betterment of the group

181
Q

Eastern cultures

A

are collectivist societies, where the benefit of the group supersedes that of the individual.

i.e. china and japan

182
Q

conformity

A

extent to which individuals modify their behaviour to be consistent with the behaviour of others in the group

i.e. asche’s study

183
Q

Groupthink

A

the need for conformity and consensus is so high that diverging ideas and differing opinions are strongly discouraged and excluded in the group’s decision-making process

–> how group thinks

184
Q

groupthink

A

overestimating the group
closemindedness
pressure for uniformity

185
Q

Which person described below is most likely to conform his/her responses to match others?

A

Seth is a student who doesn’t have many friends and is self-conscious.

186
Q

According to the Asch’s research findings, ______________ percent of participants comply with an incorrect answer at least once.

A

75.0

187
Q

Adding more confederates would not increase participants’ level of conformity after ______________ confederates all responded the same on all tasks. (Round to nearest whole number)

A

3

188
Q

A person from which of the following countries would be most likely to conform to the incorrect responses of others?

A

China

189
Q

Nuremberg Code

A

a set of ethical guidelines that were put forths after wwII

190
Q

obedience to authority.

A

milgram’s experiment - administered 450 volts; The startling findings were that 65% of participants continued until the end, where the final shock was 450 volts. –>

191
Q

In Milgram’s original design, ______________ % of participants administered all shocks to the learner. (Enter a whole number.)

A

65%

192
Q

When local psychologists and psychiatrists were questioned about their predicted results, their prediction closely matched the findings. (Milgram)

A

False

193
Q

Zimbardo’s experiment

A

revealed how people will readily conform to the social roles they are expected to play, especially if the roles are as strongly stereotyped as those of the prison guards.

–> even if it was harming people

194
Q

Which of the following best represents the events in at Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq?

A

The power of the situation can be so great that good people do bad things.

195
Q

When hearing of the prison scandal at Abu Ghraib, what was Zimbardo’s reaction? (Check all that apply.)

A

The actions are Abu Ghraib were reminiscent of the Stanford Prison Experiment

An interest in helping the defense of one of the U.S. soldiers who was involved

An understanding that the situation was a powerful determinant of the behaviour

196
Q

Zimbardo’s presentation on Ted Talks asserts that all people can become evil.

A

true

197
Q

According to Zimbardo, what factors must be considered when investigating heinous acts?

A

Situation, person and system involved

198
Q

How long did it take for one of the prisoners in the Stanford Prison Experiments to have a complete emotional collapse?

A

36 hours

199
Q

According to Zimbardo, what events inspired Milgram’s classic research? (Select all that apply.)

A

the atrocities that occurred during the Nazi regime

Curiosity as to how much would a person shock another with minor prompts from an authority figure

200
Q

bystander effect

A

refers to the phenomenon in which the greater the number of people present, the less likely people are to help a person in distress.

why?
diffusion of responsibility
pluralistic ignorance

201
Q

Pluralistic ignorance

A

is a social psychological concept that occurs when people fail to act because they unwittingly rely on social cues from others to guide their behaviour, without realizing that the referent others also face uncertainty

202
Q

social loafing

A

occurs when people are part of a group. When people are in a group, they tend to put forth less effort.

203
Q

You most likely to get help from others when there are ______________ bystander(s).

A

1

204
Q

Which of the following would be most effective in getting help in an emergency situation?

A

Point directly at someone and ask that person for help

205
Q

For members of the doomsday cult, when faced with the reality that the world was not ending and no spaceship was coming, what did most members do? (Make a prediction.)

A

They remained with the cult, even more committed now that they had all saved the world.

206
Q

Which of the following persons would be likely to join a cult?

A

Henry is 22; he failed out of university and has never dated anyone and his only “friends” are people he talks to at work.

207
Q

Leaders of cults are often perceived by members as charismatic.

A

True

208
Q

Which of the following best describes the premise or ideas that were the focus of attention of the doomsday cult under the leadership of Mrs. Marian Keech?

A

The world’s destruction

Keech’s ability to channel other beings

The belief that a spaceship would pick up members

Saving the world

209
Q

According to Marian Keech, what would make boarding a spaceship difficult or impossible?

A

If the passenger had metal

210
Q

Attitudes

A

cognitive, affecting and behavioural component

211
Q

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

A

when people’s attitudes and behaviours are inconsistent with each other

212
Q

Which of the following would cause the greatest state of cognitive dissonance?

A

Josef is an active animal rights advocate and vegan. After feeling hungry from his run, he eats a bowl of his mom’s beef stew but tells no one.

213
Q

Which of the following can reduce cognitive dissonance?

A

Change attitude, behaviour

Distort attitude, behaviour

214
Q

Stereotypes

A

are attitudes and opinions about people based on the group they are affiliated with.

215
Q

stereotype threat

A

an individual is afraid that their performance will be consistent with the prevailing stereotype, the result is known as the stereotype threat

i.e. Girls who have been told that girls are not as good at math as boys will face stereotype threat, and their fear of poor performance may inadvertently cause poor performance. Thus, the fear of acting consistently with a stereotype becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.

216
Q

Prejudice

A

associated with hate and consists of negative attitudes directed at groups who share a similar characteristic

217
Q

discrimination

A

is related to behaviour –> prejudice is related to attitudes

218
Q

scapegoat

A

The premise of scapegoat theory is that people can feel more empowered when they exert power over others who have less power than themselves

219
Q

Realistic Conflict Theory

A

is another explanation for hatred across minorities, based on the idea that there are few desirable jobs available, so the competition for these limited resources creates conflict

220
Q

mere exposure effect

A

the more time and experience we have with another person can also increase our liking, a phenomenon known as the mere exposure effect

221
Q

In general, we are most influenced by appearance than any other characteristic.

A

true

222
Q

People underestimate the extent to which they are influenced by superficial characteristics in others.

A

True

223
Q

Albert Bandura

A

behavioural modeling and social learning

imitated aggression

224
Q

biological model of aggression

A

biological influences on aggression

225
Q

Which of the following best explains Albert Bandura’s theory behind aggression?

A

Violent behaviour is quickly learned by watching aggressive models who are rewarded.

226
Q

Instrumental aggression

A

violent behaviour is purposeful and is a means to achieve some goal

227
Q

hostile aggression

A

sole purpose for inflicting harm

228
Q

Altruism

A

disinterested and selfless concern for the well-being of others.

229
Q

reciprocity norm

A

People tend to feel obligated to return favors after people do favors for them.

230
Q

reciprocity norm

A

foot in the door
door in the face
lowballing

231
Q

Foot-in-the-Door

A

the initial request is small, so people willingly participate

232
Q

door-in-the- face,

A

the initial request is large and met with rejection,

233
Q

Lowballing

A

is a technique most commonly associated with car salesmen. The initial offer seems great and you are committed to the purchase, and then the deal is not as good. There are added fees and other charges that sour the deal; however, the salesperson is relying on the customer’s commitment to owning the vehicle in question.

234
Q

Personality

A

defined as an enduring set of internally based characteristics that serves to produce uniqueness and consistency in the expressions of a person’s thoughts and behaviours, along with an explanation to account for these characteristics.

235
Q

Personality

A

provides an explanation to account for expression of behaviour

236
Q

uniqueness of individual

A

explains how each individual’s thoughts and behaviours are different

237
Q

Consistency of behaviour

A

describes how behaviour of the individual is consistent over time across situations

238
Q

Processes of personality

A

accounts for internal operations producing the the unique and consistent expression of thoughts and behaviours

239
Q

Freudian perspective

A

see images

psychodynamic perspectives

240
Q

psychodynamic perspectives

A

underlying assumptions

  1. We aren’t aware of what factors produce personality
  2. We can’t change or control our personality
241
Q

Regions of the mind

A

consious, preconsious, unconsious

242
Q

Structural components of the mind

A

Id, ego, superego

243
Q

Id

A

Core of personality
Works under pleasure principle
Eros (sexual impulses) thanatos (aggression)

244
Q

Ego

A

Mediates the needs of id and superego

Works on the reality principle

245
Q

Superego

A

sense of right and wrong based on personality

246
Q

Why would someone like Freud use a free association task?

A

To understand the unconscious mind

247
Q

Types of anxiety

A

reality, moral, neurotic

248
Q

Reality anxiety

A

informs the ego of the real danger

249
Q

Moral anxiety

A

notifies the superego that the ego is considering violating a moral code

250
Q

Neurotic anxiety

A

warns the ego of the threatening expression of the id impulses at the level of conscious awareness

251
Q

healthy personality

A

is a balanced expression of id, ego, and superego.

252
Q

defense mechanisms

A

are behaviors people use to separate themselves from unpleasant events, actions, or thoughts.

see examples on page

253
Q

The ego can utilise ______________ to help deal with the threatening influences of neurotic anxiety.

A

Defense mechanisms

254
Q

psychosexual stages.

A

proposed the development of personality through a sequence of five psychosexual stages

255
Q

unresolved resolution

A

can result in a fixation or regression (return) in this period

256
Q

neo-freudian perspectives

A

represent personality based on reactions to freud’s psychoanalytic perspective

257
Q

Strengths of psychoanalytic perspectives

A
  1. comprehensive and unifying perspective
  2. stimulated other theory
  3. considerable influences
258
Q

weakness of psychoanalytic perspectives

A
  1. perspective based on biased observations
  2. utilises ambigious terms
  3. problemative view of development and expression of female personality
259
Q

jung

A

ung proposed the collective unconscious (Jung, 1959/1936b), which he believed was interconnected through past experiences to other individuals across generations and locations around the world.

–> in the form of archetypes

260
Q

jung’s core elements of p

A

persona
shadow –> similar to id
self –> similar to ego, serves to unite all aspects of personality

261
Q

adler

A

striving for personality

priniciple of social interest

262
Q

striving for personality

A
  • -> operates at conscious level

- -> motivational source to reach full potential and superiority

263
Q

priniciple of social interest

A

considering the needs of others and betterment of society

264
Q

horney

A

postulates that personality is expressed through sense of feeling safe and loved

265
Q

moving towards people

A

cooperating to obtain the affection and protection from others

266
Q

moving against people

A

aggressive behaviour to obtain power over others

267
Q

moving away from people

A

social and emotional withdrawal from others

268
Q

Strengths of Neo-freudian perspectives

A
  1. Jung’s expanded emphasis on unconsious mind.

2. Adler’ and Horney expanded on social relationships on expression of personality

269
Q

limitations of Neo-freudian perspectives

A
  1. vague concepts

2. biased observations

270
Q

Huamnistic perspective

A

hierarchy of needs, sef-actualisation

271
Q

Carl roger

A

conditional and unconditional positive regard

272
Q

conditional positive regard

A

acceptance by others only by meeting their expectations

273
Q

unconditional positive regard

A

acceptane by others for who they are w/o passing judgement

274
Q

strengths of humanistic

A
  1. favourable view, operating at a conscious level

2. emphasis on motivation and seeking our full potential

275
Q

weaknenss of humanistic

A

includes many concepts, hard to test objectively

276
Q

bandura’s self-system

A

emphasizes the role of observational learning, social experience, and reciprocal determinism in developing a personality.

277
Q

self-system

A
  • set of cognitions
  • used to observe and evaluate external stimuli
  • helps regulate behaviour
278
Q

self-efficacy

A

personal beliefs regarding competence

-confidence

279
Q

Rotter’s social learning perspective

A

internal and external locus of control

280
Q

internal locus of control

A
  • better adjusted

- generalised belief that we do have considerable influence over the events of our life

281
Q

External locus

A

generalised belief that we do NOT have considerable influence over the events of our life

learned helplessness

282
Q

Strengths of social cognitive

A
  1. empirical evidence

2. empahsis on cognitive factors operating at conscious level

283
Q

Limitations of social cognitive

A
  1. lack of emphasis on unconsious mind and emotional elements of personality
  2. lack of attention for developmental personality
284
Q

neurological perspective

A

basic purpose, physiological and brain processess infleucnign personality

285
Q

Evolutionary perspective

A 
Survival 
-living longer
-positive personality characteristics
(conscientiousnness, optimistim) 
-negative persoality characteristics

Reproduction

  • functionally infertile
  • women (low on cooperativeness)
  • men (low social assertiveness)
286
Q

strengths of evolutionary

A
  1. empirical

2. emphasis on biological factors

287
Q

limitations to evolutionary

A

lack of understanding on biological perspetives

288
Q

Eysenck’s trait theory

A

Extraversion-introversion
Neuroticism-emotional stability
Psychoticiism-impulse control

289
Q

Five factor model

“Big Five”

A

OCEAN

290
Q

Strengths of trait perspectives

A
  1. identified core dimension of personality

2. applied to important behavioural and social issues

291
Q

Limitations to trait theory

A
  1. can’t explain underlying process of traits

2. can’t explain how and why personalty is developed

292
Q

personality assessment methods

A

interviews or observational

293
Q

emotions

A

are behavioural phenomena to which outside observers do not have full access

it is a feeling that we have towards an object or event

294
Q

Emotions

A

are “states elicited by rewards and punishers which have particular functions”

i.e. If you are awarded a large scholarship (i.e., a reward) to help with University costs, then you might experience happiness and gratitude.

295
Q

Sort the following in order of how long they last starting with the shortest in duration.

A

Reinforcer
Emotion
Mood

296
Q

Adaptation theory of emotions

A

different emotions are for different adaptations

297
Q

another theory

A

each emotion has or is composed of multiple behavioural elements that occur over time

298
Q

Which of Tracy’s necessary components of theories of emotion corresponds to how happiness does not serve the same purpose as anxiety?

A

Each emotion is a different adaptation.

299
Q

Which of the following events would happen with surprise?

A

Thinking that you’ve never jumped so high as when your friend said hello in a quiet room

Stopping what you were doing and paying attention to the new stimulus

300
Q

emotions

A
  1. occur in response to rewards and punishers
  2. encourage us to persist in responding for reward.
  3. different emotions are different adaptations
  4. accompanied by changes in thoughts, feelings, facial expressions and physiology
301
Q

different emotions are different adaptations

A

we can specify:

  1. when we will experience an emotion.
  2. how the emotion affects us
  3. how the behaviour solves an evolutionary problem
302
Q

each emotion has extended behavioral elements

A

includes changes in:

hormones
thoughts 
feelings
other behaviour
facial expressions
sense perceptions
303
Q

Theories of emotion

A

James-Lange

Cannon-Bard

304
Q

james lange

A
  1. Perceive stimulus in an environment
  2. Express emotion
  3. Acknowledge
305
Q

Cannon-bard

A
  1. Perceive stimulus in env.
  2. Express emotion and acknowledge it
  3. Thalamus mediates emotions
306
Q

universal emotions

A

disgust
happiness
anxious
surprise

307
Q

emotional contagion

A

catch an emotion from another person

i.e. anger spreads reapidly

308
Q

pavlovian and operant conditoning

conditioned emotional response procedure

A

to condition emotional responses like fear arise

309
Q

What are cultural events that evoke emotions classified as?

A

Discriminative stimuli

310
Q

What role does emotion play in morality?

A

Non-moral emotion is the foundation of morality

311
Q

phylogeny

A

evolutionary history of a population

312
Q

ontogeny

A

describes how an organism develops over time

313
Q

natural situations elicit distress

A

distress vocalisations
(in newborn chicks)
comfort with conspecific
(comfort in the presence of their member of their own species)

314
Q

What would we need to find in order to say that tender is a new emotion?

A

It would have to be recognised across several cultures.

It has to have an accompanying facial expression.

315
Q

(Amsel’s Frustration theory for behaviour)

Frustrative events

A

these are situatioons in which rewards are not as quickly available or are omitted entirely when they were previously available

316
Q

Occassion Setters in Pavlovian Conditioning

A

taste is paired with food

hunger modulates taste-food (calories) relationship

we stop eating when we feel full

317
Q

when will hunger function as an occassion setter?

A

a) when we have eaten while hungy

b) when we have eaten while full

318
Q

meeting biological needs

A

eating

i.e. jay has to forage for nuts, then cache (hoard) the nuts, and later remember where nuts are stored

319
Q

stimulus substituition

A
  1. CS and UCS are interchangeable
  2. CS and UCR should look the same.
  3. Conditioned taste aversion
320
Q

signal subsituition

A

artificial stimulus substitutes for naturally occuring stimuu

321
Q

What happens if a raven sees a second raven land in the same area in which the first bird is caching?

A

It digs up the food to relocate it

322
Q

What type of conditioning occurs when hunger serves as an occasion setter for learning about taste?

A

Pavlovian

323
Q

What type of conditioning procedure models how orosensory stimuli become informative?

A

Trace conditioning

324
Q

Coolidge effect

A

occurs when a habituated sexual response comes back to a different stimulus

325
Q

habituation

A

occurs with the first female rat, and had she been presented again, the male rat would be less likely to copulate with her

326
Q

Dishabituation

A

with second and different femaile, ejaculation returns

327
Q

mate poaching

A

occurs when an individual knows that a paramour is in a relationship but courts him/her for sex anyway

328
Q

Rivalry sensitivity hypothesis

A

women focus on rivals in their partner’s immediate vicinity while men focus on their partner if a rival is nearby.

329
Q

motivation

A

is why some behaviour was emitted

330
Q

timberlake (1993)

A

explains how behaviour systems and how animals behave

331
Q

species-typical behaviour patterns,

A

is based on the premise that certain behavioral similarities are shared by almost all members of a species.

332
Q

response-deprivation hypothesis

A

refers to a model for predicting whether or not one behavior will function as a reinforcement for another behavior.

333
Q

Species-specific defence reactions

A

re part of the constraints on learning, which are included in the ecological approach. Basically, taking into consideration everything we know about the situation and the individual’s history will allow us to understand and predict behaviour more accurately.

PSY140 Intro to Psych (6 decks)

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