chapter 7 learning Flashcards
How many communities were created based on Skinner’s science of behaviour?
4.0
Some skills are innate
therefore are not a result of learning
Reflexes
Reflexive responses are controlled by environmental events that precede them.
operant conditioning
through rewards and punishment
social (vicarious learning)
Social (or vicarious) learning is when we learn something by watching others. Your cat might learn to open doors by watching you, and your brother might learn to sled just like you do.
latent learning
occurs when we learn something but don’t show it until we have a reason to use our new knowledge. You might not think you know where the fuse box is in the house, but you can probably quickly navigate to it if the power goes out.
Psychology has identified three major types of learning. Which of the following is true in reference to the three types of learning?
The three types of learning are classical, operant, and social.
(Pavlovian) Classical conditioning
through reinforcement
involves stimuli and responses
Stimulus
anything that can be detected, measurable, and evoke a responses
Learning
broad and permanent change in behaviour and not due to drugs
Neutral Stimulus
does not naturally elicit a response
Unconditioned stimulus
Naturally elicits a response
i.e. food
Unconditioned response
natural response to biologically relevant stimulus
i.e. salivation
Conditioned stimulus
Elicits response due to learning
i.e. bell
Conditioned response
Learned response to env stimulus
i.e. salivation to bell, before even food
Reflex and pavlovian conditioning
takes advantage of a reflex and involves associating a previously neutral stimulus with an already meaningful stimulus
UCS + NS –> UCR
therefore NS –> CR
Before conditioning
UCS –> UCR and NS –> No CR
During conditioning
NS + UCS –> UCR
After conditioning
CS (previously NS) –> CR
Temporal Relationships
See document
Two components that are associated in Pavlovian conditioning.
Association is what we learned.
conditional stimulus predicts the unconditional stimulus.
The conditional stimulus forces the conditional response and the unconditional stimulus forces the unconditional response; these stimulus-response pairs are not learned.
Sort these Pavlovian conditioning components in order for backward conditioning.
Unconditional stimulus
Unconditional response
Conditional stimulus
Taste aversion learning
trace conditioning
Associations develop with a single pairing
The taste of food is separated from sickness by several hours and yet, we will feel nauseated the next time we smell or taste thet food
What is the response that indicates that flavour aversion learning is occurring for cancer patients?
Anticipatory vomiting and nausea
pavlovian extinction
weakening conditional response over time
repeatedly presenting a conditional stimulus without an unconditional stimulus
In the movie A Clockwork Orange, Alex receives aversion therapy—pairing a nausea-inducing drug with violent films and Beethoven’s music—so that he might not have violent thoughts and commit violent crimes once released from prison. Alex does become ill when he thinks about or is put into situations in which he could be violent, but he eventually stops feeling ill once he is forced to listen to Beethoven for many hours. What Pavlovian phenomenon has occurred to produce Alex’s reduction in responding?
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
re-emergence of conditioned response after a rest period
example: cancer patients
Sort the Pavlovian conditioning phases in the correct order of acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery.
Light + food - pecking occurs to both
Light alone - pecking slowly diminishes
Rest period without light or food
Light alone - pecking returns
Stimulus generalization
involved responding similarly to conceptually or physically similar stimuli
Stimulus discrimination
responding differently to different events
Higher order conditioning
a neutral stimulus is systematically and repeatedly paired with a conditional stimulus that reliably elicits the conditional response.
Sara really likes her favorite band. She buys their songs, views videos of the group on the internet, and would love to go to their concerts. She feels uplifted and good after listening to their music. The band’s music is used as background for commercials advertising a brand of coffee. Recently, Sara started drinking the coffee even though she used to prefer tea. Which of the following explains why Sara now drinks that particular brand of coffee? There may be more than one correct answer.
Classical conditioning
Higher order conditioning
Stimulus generalisation
match the terms
CS - "Learning" UCS - Noise UCR - Responding to the noise CR - Responding to the word "Learning" Irrelevant stimulus - Pavlov
little albert
Albert was shown a variety of animals such as dogs, rabbits, white rats, and objects such as fire and a fur coat. Albert did not seem afraid of them, as you will see see in the video below. In fact, Albert seemed to like the white rat.
In the presence of a neutral white rat, they struck an iron bar with a hammer, creating a loud, unexpected noise that made Little Albert cry. After several pairings of the noise with the sight of the white rat, Little Albert would start crying at just the sight of the white rat; the rat had become a conditional stimulus for the loud noise as an unconditional stimulus. Little Albert demonstrated stimulus generalisation—crying and crawling away from objects similar to the white rat
After developing a fear of the white rat, Little Albert also exhibited fear responses to other white objects that had not been paired with loud noise. This illustrates which phenomenon associated with classical conditioning?
Stimulus generalisation
Which researcher influenced Watson’s approach to psychology?
Pavlov
phobias
intense, unrealistic fears directed toward people, objects, or situations
(conditional fears taken to extreme levels)
Operant conditioning
based on previous experience
Thorndike + law of effect
interested in how consequences of behaviour influence subsequent behaviour
stomping in
association with something pleasant
What would Thorndike say his cats learn about in their puzzle box experiment?
In the presence of a pedal in a puzzle box, press it
What is the “dead man test”?
A term used to help define behaviour, if a dead man can do it- it is not behaviour
reinforcement
increase probability of behaviour
punishment
decreases probability of behaviour
negative reinforcement is negative in the sense that…
The behaviour results in the removal of a consequence stimulus
Escape
is a situation in which the aversive stimulus is already present and a response removes or stops the otherwise ongoing aversive stimulus
avoidance
is a situation in which the aversive stimulus is not currently present but will occur unless you produce a response to cancel (or omit) the scheduled aversive event.
i.e. putting up a sign to avoid cutting in line
discriminative stimuli for reinforcement
Cues that signal a reward
i.e. order movie tickets here
discriminative stimuli for extinction
Cues that signal no upcoming outcome
i.e. no shoes = no entry
discriminative stimuli for punishment
Cues that signal a noxious stimulus
i.e. danger: electric fence
specifies punishment
Shaping
involves selecting and reinforcing more complex responses – occurs in steps
i.e. teaching someone how to brush their teeth in 4 steps … running toothbrush in water etc
Reinforcers
events or stimuli that follow behaviour increase likelihood of response/behaviour
can be positive - i.e. giving trophy after winning
or negavtive - washing hands after touching a dirty surface
Shariq is a young boy who has developed the habit of throwing rocks. His father started counting the number of times Shariq throws rocks (baseline). Shariq threw rocks 4 times on Monday, 4 times on Tuesday, and 5 times on Thursday. Starting Friday, throwing rocks resulted in a reprimand. Shariq threw rocks 10 times on Friday, 12 times on Saturday, and 12 times on Sunday. Although Shariq’s father thinks that reprimands could be _______ , it would appear, based on Shariq’s behaviour, the reprimands are actually acting as _______ for rock throwing.
positive punishment; positive reinforcement
primary reinforcers
generally are stimuli/events needed to maintain life: food, air, water etc.
Secondary
consumables - food not eaten for nutrients (e.g., junk food)
tangibles - objects you can touch (e.g., toys)
exchangeables - value from bartering (e.g., tokens, vouchers, chit)
social - comes from another person (e.g., attention, praise, eye contact)
activity - the behaviour produces its own reinforcer (e.g., playing sports, playing an instrument, drawing)
generalised conditioned reinforcers - objects traded for several other reinforcers (e.g., euros, yen, pesos, dollars)
Which of the following types of positive reinforcers is least likely to temporarily lose its reinforcing capacity even though one has “gotten it” recently?
Consumable secondary reinforcers
immediacy
consequences delivered soon after the response
power
means consequences should be big enough to support behaviour
contingency
means that there should be an if-then relationship between the response and consequence
premack principle
reinfrocer efficacy
this creates a reinfrocer because the only way we can perform a preferred activity (i.e. playing) is to first perform a less enjoyable activity (i.e. doing chores)
increases less preferred action (
“Grandma’s Rule” requires that children complete a less desirable action before being permitted to engage in a more desirable action. Which of the follow statements are true? (Select all that apply.)
The more desirable action is an activity secondary positive reinforcer.
c
Grandma’s Rule is another name for the Premack principle.
d
The less preferred action in the example will be increased.
Sort the schedules of reinforcement in order from lowest to highest rate of responding.
Fixed interval
Variable interval
Fixed ratio
Variable ratio
latent
is learning that we can’t see until we’re motivated to show it, that is, there is no change in our performance until we receive a reward
Annalise had been driving through campus for three years, but she didn’t think she knew it very well until she started giving tours to prospective students and their parents. What phenomenon might Annalise be demonstrating?
latent learning
bandura
observational learning
bandura
bobo-clown
factors affecting observation
retention phase
production phase
motivational phase
Neil saw his dad shake hands with a friend, and now Neil shakes hands with everyone he sees. How did Neil learn to shake hands with others?
social learning
Biological preparedness (belongingness)
refers to the fact that some stimuli are more likely than others to become conditional stimuli
i.e. easier to condition pavlovian fear to snakes and spiders than flowers and tones
Learned helplessness
s is a state that occurs after a person has experienced a stressful situation repeatedly. They come to believe that they are unable to control or change the situation, so they do not try — even when opportunities for change become available.
Based on our discussion of memories about your birthday and memories about your lunch a few weeks ago, what can we likely say about memory?
We seem to remember some events better than others
Which of these phrases does NOT illustrate how we often talk about thoughts and memories as if they were physical objects?
“put yourself in my shoes”
failure of search
inability to remember something
What does the coin example above illustrate?
a failure of search
Search metaphor
memory is like a library
memory in day-to-day life
Memory as the combination of both the information in the environment and what you have stored shows how memory does which of the following?
helps form an adaptive response
reconstruction metaphor for memory
Which of the following is NOT an example of the mind being represented as a metaphorical space?
“I’m having trouble grasping that idea.”
encoding
process for how our brains commit an event to memory
encoding problem
problem our brains have to solve in order to encode info
Storage
storing of memory
Storage problem
inability to store memories
sensory memory
a system that keeps info translated by the senses briefly active in a relatively unaltered, unexamined form
iconic memory
visual system and the fleeting afterimage,
Echoic memory
auditory system, echoes
last longer than iconic
immediate memory (short-term / working memory)
system that actively holds info at the front of your mind
inner voice
evidence that info in immediate memory can be represented verbally
i.e. “A” and “J”
inner eye
visual coding to guide us
i.e. imagining the space
Characteristics of immediate
memory
Duration
Capacity
Rehearsal
process of repeating information
memory span
capacity of immediate memory
seven plus or minus two
chunking
strategy to increase capacity of memory capacity by breaking “things” into chunks, making it meaningful and therefore easier to remember
phronological loop
where auditory and verbal info is temporarily stored and manipulated
visuospatial sketchpad
representation of inner eye
central executive
direct the flow of info
central executive
thought to control the phronological loop and visuospatial sketchpad
The inner ____is to the visuospatial sketchpad as the inner____ is to the phonological loop.
eye, voice
After roughly how many seconds does the amount of information in immediate memory begin to drop off precipitously?
3
Long term memory
systems are what we use to store and recall info over lengthy periods of time
episodic memories
recollection of specific events - vivid
semantic memories
general knowledge of info
- facts etc.
procedural memory
about process
Trisha is trying to remember what color the friendship bracelet that her best friend Alex gave her in second grade was. What kind of memory is Trisha using?
Episodic memory
What type of long-term memory would you most likely use to answer the question, “What is the third planet from the sun?”
semantic memory
elaborative rehearsal
process used to keep info active in immediate memory
deep processing
making meaningful connections to existing knowledge
shallow processing
encoding based on surface characteristics
What type of processing task is counting the number of vowels in a word?
Shallow
Types of elaboration
Imagery
organisation
Distinctiveness
Self-reference
Types of elaboration
Imagery
organisation
Distinctiveness
Self-reference
Imagery
Thinking about the coppery smell of a penny
weakness –> tend to be generalised
Organisation
Thinking about how pennies¸ dimes¸ and nickels are all American coins.
weakness –> within-group mistakes are often made
Distinctiveness
Thinking about how pennies are the only kinds of common American coinage that aren’t silver in color.
weakness –> potentially time-consuming
Self-reference
Thinking about the penny you picked up this morning on your way to class.
weakness –> potentially culture-bound to individualistic cultures
Massed practice
Cramming (i.e. students frantically studying for exams by rereading their notes the night before the exam
Spacing effect
spacing out learning
Mnemonics
provides a framework to engage in meaningful processing
i.e. guitar strings ACEG -
all cows eat grass
Retrieval practice
“testing effect”
Which effective encoding strategy is an attempt to help us encode information in ways that our brains are designed to use?
adaptive memory strategies
Which effective encoding strategy uses chunking?
Acronyms and initializations
Arya is trying to remember a list of names. She rehearses the list of names to herself, imagining the person’s face as she says their name while also thinking of the last time she interacted with that person. What two types of elaboration is Arya using to remember her list of names?
Imagery and self-reference
retrieval problem
inability to retrieve info
Cues
pieces of info that help us remember events from the past
Free recall
recall without help
cued recall
recall with given cues
Encoding specificity principle
means a retrieval cue is only useful as long as it matches how a piece of information was originally encoded
What type of long-term memory would you most likely use to answer the question, “What is the third planet from the sun?”
When he is drinking
Transfer-appropriate processing
engaging in the same processes when encoding
i.e. chewing gum while studying, then chewing gum during the test
Explicit memory
intentionally trying to recall information
Implicit memory
recalling information without consciously realising or intending it
i.e. Exposing participants to a list of color names, then seeing if they complete the word stem “GRE__” as “GREEN.”
Because Helga studied a list of words by considering whether they rhymed with the word “train,” she tests herself on the list of words by writing a rhyming poem about trains. Which of the following is Helga exemplifying?
Transfer- appropriate processing
Seven sins of memory
term for memory errors
two types:
Errors of omission
Errors of comission
Errors of omission
memory errors where information cannot be brought to mind
Errors of commission
memory errors where wrong or unwanted information is brought to mind
Jordan is trying to remember the name of their third grade teacher; while they can remember her face, they can’t seem to remember her name. Meanwhile, Polly is mixing up her third and fourth grade teachers, getting them backward. Who is committing an error of omission?
Jordan
Transcience
describes how memory for particular event of piece of info tends to degrade over time — simply what we call forgetting
Retroactive interference
when newly learned info in makes it more difficult to recall older information, and happens all day, every da.
–> it isn’t time that causes forgetting, but instead the constant flow of new info that bombards us every minute
Proactive intereference
is the opposite, old memories interfere with recall of new memories
Misattribution
occurs when we incorrectly recall the source of the info we are trying to remember
deja vu
we can’t remember the source of the information rather than misattribute it
Flashbulb memories
are memories for events that are both surprising and particularly significant
suggestibility
misremembered to have been suggested by an outside source
misinformation effect
refers to the tendency for post-event information to interfere with the memory of the original event.
Bias
influence by knowledge and beliefs
schemas
are highly organised sets of facts and knowledge about specific kinds of information.
persistence
occur when the memory system fails to prevent the recall of a memory that is unwanted
Fill in the blanks: _____ are complex knowledge structures that help us put information in context. However, they often lead to _____.
Schemas; over-generalisation
hyperthymesia
an exceptionally rare medical condition that leads to near perfect autobiographical recall
–> but can be a curse i.e. can remember every time her mother called her fat
Retrograde amnesia
inability to remember past memories
i.e. often portrayed in movies
Anterograde amnesia
inability to make new memories
Why did Henry Molaison have his hippocampus removed?
He suffered from severe seizures
What forms of amnesia did H. M. have?
Both
Milner demonstrated that H.M. could remember a number for up to fifteen minutes by repeating it to himself constantly. This best demonstrates what?
The ability of rehearsal to maintain information
Data regarding H. M. provided evidence for the distinction between ______________.
Immediate and long-term memory
According to the reading, what one-word response is NOT responsible for the sin of transience?
decay
time
What physical attributes appear to explain hyperthymesia?
An enlarged amygdala
c
Additional connections between the amygdala and hippocampus
Hyperthymesia is primarily ____________.
Near perfect autobiographical memory
Dispositional or internal causes
encompass personality traits and characteristics of the person
situational or external causes
are a function of the environment
Kelley’s covariation model
consistency
Distinctiveness
Consensus
Consistency
looks at how a person acts in the same situation/context across time
Distinctiveness
person’s actions must also be considered, which determines whether the person acts in the same
Consensus
extent to which an individual’s behaviour resembles the behaviour of others
Based on the information provided, which of the following best represents the desired normative behaviour?
consensus
fundamental attribution error (FAE)
explains how we assign attributes to self and others.
actor-observer bias.
is a term in social psychology that refers to a tendency to attribute one’s own actions to external causes while attributing other people’s behaviors to internal causes
self-serving bias
occurs when individuals credit their successes to internal/disposition causes and their failures to external/situational causes.
By perceiving your successes to be internally derived and your failures to be the result of external causes, your self-esteem is preserved
false consensus effect,
occurs when we overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs
i.e. people assume that the ideas and opinions they embrace are not only correct and sound, but also shared by others around them
Which of the following best represents the fundamental attribution error?
Keanu failed the exam because he is lazy.
impression formation
how we formulate opinions about individuals or groups
first impression
tend to be enduring, it is your quick assessment when meeting someone – usually seconds
primacy effect
he tendency for facts, impressions, or items that are presented first to be better learned or remembered than material presented later in the sequence.
confirmation bias
is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one’s prior beliefs or values.
When you meet someone for the first time, how quickly do you form an impression of that person?
Within seconds to minutes of meeting
If your lecturer perceives you as a mature and responsible student, what would they most likely think if you came to class late?
The lecturer thinks that there must be some extenuating circumstances that caused your late arrival.
Self-fulfilling prophecy,
process through which an originally false expectation leads to its own confirmation.
i. e. being positive leads to positive results
i. e. “saying you’re bad” - replacing this statement with positive ones lead to students with open minds, this approach helps them learn
You go to a party with friends and you feel confident, knowing you are looking good in the new clothes you bought. According to the self-fulfilling prophecy, which of the following would be most likely to occur?
You talk to new people, socialise, and enjoy the party.
With regard to impression formation, even if your initial impression is negative, it can be easily changed if subsequent exposures are positive.
false
Social influence
is the process in which our thoughts and actions are shaped by the presence of others
Social norms
are prescribed behaviours that vary across contexts, cultures, and time.
Western Cultures
individualistic, so the focus is on individual gains over the betterment of the group
Eastern cultures
are collectivist societies, where the benefit of the group supersedes that of the individual.
i.e. china and japan
conformity
extent to which individuals modify their behaviour to be consistent with the behaviour of others in the group
i.e. asche’s study
Groupthink
the need for conformity and consensus is so high that diverging ideas and differing opinions are strongly discouraged and excluded in the group’s decision-making process
–> how group thinks
groupthink
overestimating the group
closemindedness
pressure for uniformity
Which person described below is most likely to conform his/her responses to match others?
Seth is a student who doesn’t have many friends and is self-conscious.
According to the Asch’s research findings, ______________ percent of participants comply with an incorrect answer at least once.
75.0
Adding more confederates would not increase participants’ level of conformity after ______________ confederates all responded the same on all tasks. (Round to nearest whole number)
3
A person from which of the following countries would be most likely to conform to the incorrect responses of others?
China
Nuremberg Code
a set of ethical guidelines that were put forths after wwII
obedience to authority.
milgram’s experiment - administered 450 volts; The startling findings were that 65% of participants continued until the end, where the final shock was 450 volts. –>
In Milgram’s original design, ______________ % of participants administered all shocks to the learner. (Enter a whole number.)
65%
When local psychologists and psychiatrists were questioned about their predicted results, their prediction closely matched the findings. (Milgram)
False
Zimbardo’s experiment
revealed how people will readily conform to the social roles they are expected to play, especially if the roles are as strongly stereotyped as those of the prison guards.
–> even if it was harming people
Which of the following best represents the events in at Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq?
The power of the situation can be so great that good people do bad things.
When hearing of the prison scandal at Abu Ghraib, what was Zimbardo’s reaction? (Check all that apply.)
The actions are Abu Ghraib were reminiscent of the Stanford Prison Experiment
An interest in helping the defense of one of the U.S. soldiers who was involved
An understanding that the situation was a powerful determinant of the behaviour
Zimbardo’s presentation on Ted Talks asserts that all people can become evil.
true
According to Zimbardo, what factors must be considered when investigating heinous acts?
Situation, person and system involved
How long did it take for one of the prisoners in the Stanford Prison Experiments to have a complete emotional collapse?
36 hours
According to Zimbardo, what events inspired Milgram’s classic research? (Select all that apply.)
the atrocities that occurred during the Nazi regime
Curiosity as to how much would a person shock another with minor prompts from an authority figure
bystander effect
refers to the phenomenon in which the greater the number of people present, the less likely people are to help a person in distress.
why?
diffusion of responsibility
pluralistic ignorance
Pluralistic ignorance
is a social psychological concept that occurs when people fail to act because they unwittingly rely on social cues from others to guide their behaviour, without realizing that the referent others also face uncertainty
social loafing
occurs when people are part of a group. When people are in a group, they tend to put forth less effort.
You most likely to get help from others when there are ______________ bystander(s).
1
Which of the following would be most effective in getting help in an emergency situation?
Point directly at someone and ask that person for help
For members of the doomsday cult, when faced with the reality that the world was not ending and no spaceship was coming, what did most members do? (Make a prediction.)
They remained with the cult, even more committed now that they had all saved the world.
Which of the following persons would be likely to join a cult?
Henry is 22; he failed out of university and has never dated anyone and his only “friends” are people he talks to at work.
Leaders of cults are often perceived by members as charismatic.
True
Which of the following best describes the premise or ideas that were the focus of attention of the doomsday cult under the leadership of Mrs. Marian Keech?
The world’s destruction
Keech’s ability to channel other beings
The belief that a spaceship would pick up members
Saving the world
According to Marian Keech, what would make boarding a spaceship difficult or impossible?
If the passenger had metal
Attitudes
cognitive, affecting and behavioural component
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
when people’s attitudes and behaviours are inconsistent with each other
Which of the following would cause the greatest state of cognitive dissonance?
Josef is an active animal rights advocate and vegan. After feeling hungry from his run, he eats a bowl of his mom’s beef stew but tells no one.
Which of the following can reduce cognitive dissonance?
Change attitude, behaviour
Distort attitude, behaviour
Stereotypes
are attitudes and opinions about people based on the group they are affiliated with.
stereotype threat
an individual is afraid that their performance will be consistent with the prevailing stereotype, the result is known as the stereotype threat
i.e. Girls who have been told that girls are not as good at math as boys will face stereotype threat, and their fear of poor performance may inadvertently cause poor performance. Thus, the fear of acting consistently with a stereotype becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Prejudice
associated with hate and consists of negative attitudes directed at groups who share a similar characteristic
discrimination
is related to behaviour –> prejudice is related to attitudes
scapegoat
The premise of scapegoat theory is that people can feel more empowered when they exert power over others who have less power than themselves
Realistic Conflict Theory
is another explanation for hatred across minorities, based on the idea that there are few desirable jobs available, so the competition for these limited resources creates conflict
mere exposure effect
the more time and experience we have with another person can also increase our liking, a phenomenon known as the mere exposure effect
In general, we are most influenced by appearance than any other characteristic.
true
People underestimate the extent to which they are influenced by superficial characteristics in others.
True
Albert Bandura
behavioural modeling and social learning
imitated aggression
biological model of aggression
biological influences on aggression
Which of the following best explains Albert Bandura’s theory behind aggression?
Violent behaviour is quickly learned by watching aggressive models who are rewarded.
Instrumental aggression
violent behaviour is purposeful and is a means to achieve some goal
hostile aggression
sole purpose for inflicting harm
Altruism
disinterested and selfless concern for the well-being of others.
reciprocity norm
People tend to feel obligated to return favors after people do favors for them.
reciprocity norm
foot in the door
door in the face
lowballing
Foot-in-the-Door
the initial request is small, so people willingly participate
door-in-the- face,
the initial request is large and met with rejection,
Lowballing
is a technique most commonly associated with car salesmen. The initial offer seems great and you are committed to the purchase, and then the deal is not as good. There are added fees and other charges that sour the deal; however, the salesperson is relying on the customer’s commitment to owning the vehicle in question.
Personality
defined as an enduring set of internally based characteristics that serves to produce uniqueness and consistency in the expressions of a person’s thoughts and behaviours, along with an explanation to account for these characteristics.
Personality
provides an explanation to account for expression of behaviour
uniqueness of individual
explains how each individual’s thoughts and behaviours are different
Consistency of behaviour
describes how behaviour of the individual is consistent over time across situations
Processes of personality
accounts for internal operations producing the the unique and consistent expression of thoughts and behaviours
Freudian perspective
see images
psychodynamic perspectives
psychodynamic perspectives
underlying assumptions
- We aren’t aware of what factors produce personality
- We can’t change or control our personality
Regions of the mind
consious, preconsious, unconsious
Structural components of the mind
Id, ego, superego
Id
Core of personality
Works under pleasure principle
Eros (sexual impulses) thanatos (aggression)
Ego
Mediates the needs of id and superego
Works on the reality principle
Superego
sense of right and wrong based on personality
Why would someone like Freud use a free association task?
To understand the unconscious mind
Types of anxiety
reality, moral, neurotic
Reality anxiety
informs the ego of the real danger
Moral anxiety
notifies the superego that the ego is considering violating a moral code
Neurotic anxiety
warns the ego of the threatening expression of the id impulses at the level of conscious awareness
healthy personality
is a balanced expression of id, ego, and superego.
defense mechanisms
are behaviors people use to separate themselves from unpleasant events, actions, or thoughts.
see examples on page
The ego can utilise ______________ to help deal with the threatening influences of neurotic anxiety.
Defense mechanisms
psychosexual stages.
proposed the development of personality through a sequence of five psychosexual stages
unresolved resolution
can result in a fixation or regression (return) in this period
neo-freudian perspectives
represent personality based on reactions to freud’s psychoanalytic perspective
Strengths of psychoanalytic perspectives
- comprehensive and unifying perspective
- stimulated other theory
- considerable influences
weakness of psychoanalytic perspectives
- perspective based on biased observations
- utilises ambigious terms
- problemative view of development and expression of female personality
jung
ung proposed the collective unconscious (Jung, 1959/1936b), which he believed was interconnected through past experiences to other individuals across generations and locations around the world.
–> in the form of archetypes
jung’s core elements of p
persona
shadow –> similar to id
self –> similar to ego, serves to unite all aspects of personality
adler
striving for personality
priniciple of social interest
striving for personality
- -> operates at conscious level
- -> motivational source to reach full potential and superiority
priniciple of social interest
considering the needs of others and betterment of society
horney
postulates that personality is expressed through sense of feeling safe and loved
moving towards people
cooperating to obtain the affection and protection from others
moving against people
aggressive behaviour to obtain power over others
moving away from people
social and emotional withdrawal from others
Strengths of Neo-freudian perspectives
- Jung’s expanded emphasis on unconsious mind.
2. Adler’ and Horney expanded on social relationships on expression of personality
limitations of Neo-freudian perspectives
- vague concepts
2. biased observations
Huamnistic perspective
hierarchy of needs, sef-actualisation
Carl roger
conditional and unconditional positive regard
conditional positive regard
acceptance by others only by meeting their expectations
unconditional positive regard
acceptane by others for who they are w/o passing judgement
strengths of humanistic
- favourable view, operating at a conscious level
2. emphasis on motivation and seeking our full potential
weaknenss of humanistic
includes many concepts, hard to test objectively
bandura’s self-system
emphasizes the role of observational learning, social experience, and reciprocal determinism in developing a personality.
self-system
- set of cognitions
- used to observe and evaluate external stimuli
- helps regulate behaviour
self-efficacy
personal beliefs regarding competence
-confidence
Rotter’s social learning perspective
internal and external locus of control
internal locus of control
- better adjusted
- generalised belief that we do have considerable influence over the events of our life
External locus
generalised belief that we do NOT have considerable influence over the events of our life
learned helplessness
Strengths of social cognitive
- empirical evidence
2. empahsis on cognitive factors operating at conscious level
Limitations of social cognitive
- lack of emphasis on unconsious mind and emotional elements of personality
- lack of attention for developmental personality
neurological perspective
basic purpose, physiological and brain processess infleucnign personality
Evolutionary perspective
Survival -living longer -positive personality characteristics (conscientiousnness, optimistim) -negative persoality characteristics
Reproduction
- functionally infertile
- women (low on cooperativeness)
- men (low social assertiveness)
strengths of evolutionary
- empirical
2. emphasis on biological factors
limitations to evolutionary
lack of understanding on biological perspetives
Eysenck’s trait theory
Extraversion-introversion
Neuroticism-emotional stability
Psychoticiism-impulse control
Five factor model
“Big Five”
OCEAN
Strengths of trait perspectives
- identified core dimension of personality
2. applied to important behavioural and social issues
Limitations to trait theory
- can’t explain underlying process of traits
2. can’t explain how and why personalty is developed
personality assessment methods
interviews or observational
emotions
are behavioural phenomena to which outside observers do not have full access
it is a feeling that we have towards an object or event
Emotions
are “states elicited by rewards and punishers which have particular functions”
i.e. If you are awarded a large scholarship (i.e., a reward) to help with University costs, then you might experience happiness and gratitude.
Sort the following in order of how long they last starting with the shortest in duration.
Reinforcer
Emotion
Mood
Adaptation theory of emotions
different emotions are for different adaptations
another theory
each emotion has or is composed of multiple behavioural elements that occur over time
Which of Tracy’s necessary components of theories of emotion corresponds to how happiness does not serve the same purpose as anxiety?
Each emotion is a different adaptation.
Which of the following events would happen with surprise?
Thinking that you’ve never jumped so high as when your friend said hello in a quiet room
Stopping what you were doing and paying attention to the new stimulus
emotions
- occur in response to rewards and punishers
- encourage us to persist in responding for reward.
- different emotions are different adaptations
- accompanied by changes in thoughts, feelings, facial expressions and physiology
different emotions are different adaptations
we can specify:
- when we will experience an emotion.
- how the emotion affects us
- how the behaviour solves an evolutionary problem
each emotion has extended behavioral elements
includes changes in:
hormones thoughts feelings other behaviour facial expressions sense perceptions
Theories of emotion
James-Lange
Cannon-Bard
james lange
- Perceive stimulus in an environment
- Express emotion
- Acknowledge
Cannon-bard
- Perceive stimulus in env.
- Express emotion and acknowledge it
- Thalamus mediates emotions
universal emotions
disgust
happiness
anxious
surprise
emotional contagion
catch an emotion from another person
i.e. anger spreads reapidly
pavlovian and operant conditoning
conditioned emotional response procedure
to condition emotional responses like fear arise
What are cultural events that evoke emotions classified as?
Discriminative stimuli
What role does emotion play in morality?
Non-moral emotion is the foundation of morality
phylogeny
evolutionary history of a population
ontogeny
describes how an organism develops over time
natural situations elicit distress
distress vocalisations
(in newborn chicks)
comfort with conspecific
(comfort in the presence of their member of their own species)
What would we need to find in order to say that tender is a new emotion?
It would have to be recognised across several cultures.
It has to have an accompanying facial expression.
(Amsel’s Frustration theory for behaviour)
Frustrative events
these are situatioons in which rewards are not as quickly available or are omitted entirely when they were previously available
Occassion Setters in Pavlovian Conditioning
taste is paired with food
hunger modulates taste-food (calories) relationship
we stop eating when we feel full
when will hunger function as an occassion setter?
a) when we have eaten while hungy
b) when we have eaten while full
meeting biological needs
eating
i.e. jay has to forage for nuts, then cache (hoard) the nuts, and later remember where nuts are stored
stimulus substituition
- CS and UCS are interchangeable
- CS and UCR should look the same.
- Conditioned taste aversion
signal subsituition
artificial stimulus substitutes for naturally occuring stimuu
What happens if a raven sees a second raven land in the same area in which the first bird is caching?
It digs up the food to relocate it
What type of conditioning occurs when hunger serves as an occasion setter for learning about taste?
Pavlovian
What type of conditioning procedure models how orosensory stimuli become informative?
Trace conditioning
Coolidge effect
occurs when a habituated sexual response comes back to a different stimulus
habituation
occurs with the first female rat, and had she been presented again, the male rat would be less likely to copulate with her
Dishabituation
with second and different femaile, ejaculation returns
mate poaching
occurs when an individual knows that a paramour is in a relationship but courts him/her for sex anyway
Rivalry sensitivity hypothesis
women focus on rivals in their partner’s immediate vicinity while men focus on their partner if a rival is nearby.
motivation
is why some behaviour was emitted
timberlake (1993)
explains how behaviour systems and how animals behave
species-typical behaviour patterns,
is based on the premise that certain behavioral similarities are shared by almost all members of a species.
response-deprivation hypothesis
refers to a model for predicting whether or not one behavior will function as a reinforcement for another behavior.
Species-specific defence reactions
re part of the constraints on learning, which are included in the ecological approach. Basically, taking into consideration everything we know about the situation and the individual’s history will allow us to understand and predict behaviour more accurately.
