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Z Biomolecules (Biochemistry) > Chapter 7: Carbohydrates > Flashcards

Chapter 7: Carbohydrates Flashcards

1
Q

are the most abundant class of bioorganic molecules on planet Earth.

A

Carbohydrates

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2
Q

Carbohydrates’ A abundance in the human body is relatively ___

A

Low

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3
Q

2 biochemical substances

A

Bioinorganic substances
Bioorganic substances

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4
Q

Substances that do not contain carbon

A

Bioinorganic substances

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5
Q

Substances that contain carbon

A

Bioorganic susbtances

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6
Q

carbohydrates
constitute about ___ by mass of ___ ___ materials.

A

-75%
- dry plant

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7
Q

Composition of bioinorganic substances

A

Water (70%)
Inorganic salts (5%)

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8
Q

Composition of Bioorganic susbtances

A

Proteins (about 15%)
Lipids (about 8%)
Carbohydrates (about 2%)
Nucleic acids (about 2%)

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9
Q

How do green (chlorophyll-containing) plants produce carbohydrates?

A

Via photosynthesis

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10
Q

Two main uses for the carbohydrates in
plants:

A
  1. In the form of cellulose
  2. In the form of starch
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11
Q

carbohydrates serve as structural elements

A

Cellulose

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12
Q

they provide energy reserves for the plants

A

Starch

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13
Q

Dietary ___ of plant materials is the major ____ source for ___
and ____.

A
  • intake
  • carbohydrate
  • humans
    -animals
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14
Q

The average human diet should ideally be about _____ carbohydrate
by mass.

A
  • two-thirds
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15
Q

Functions of carbohydrates in humans:

A
  1. Carbohydrate oxidation provides energy
  2. (Glycogen) provides a short-term energy reserve
  3. Carbohydrates supply carbon atoms for the synthesis of other biochemical substances
  4. Essential components in the mechanisms of genetic control of growth and development of living cells (ribose,deoxyribose)
  5. Carbohydrates linked to lipids are structural components of cell membranes.
  6. Carbohydrates linked to proteins function in a variety of cell–cell and cell–
    molecule recognition processes.
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16
Q

Carbohydrate storage, in the form of ____, provides a short-term energy reserve.

A

glycogen

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17
Q

structural components of cell membranes.

A

(carbohydrates linked to) lipids

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18
Q

function in a variety of cell–cell and cell–molecule recognition processes.

A

(Carbohydrates linked to) Proteins

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19
Q

General formula of most simple carbohydrates

A

CnH2nOn

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20
Q

the basis for the term carbohydrate (“hydrate of carbon”)

A

Cn(H2O)n

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21
Q

A carbohydrate is a ____ ____, a ____ ____, or a compound
that ___ polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones upon ____.

A

-polyhydroxy aldehyde
-polyhydroxy ketone
-yields
-hydrolysis

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22
Q

Carbohydrates are classified on the ___ _ _____ __.

A

basis of molecular size

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23
Q

Types of carbohydrates

A
  1. Monosaccharide
  2. Disaccharide
  3. Oligosaccharide
  4. Polysaccharide
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24
Q

a carbohydrate that contains a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or
polyhydroxy ketone unit.

A

Monosaccharide

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25
Q

Monosaccharide;
- cannot be broken down into ____ ___ by _____ reactions.
- _________, white, _____ ____

A

-simpler units
-hydrolysis
- water-soluble, white, crystalline solids

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26
Q

is a carbohydrate that contains two monosaccharide units covalently bonded to each other

A

Disaccharide

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27
Q

properties of dissaccharides

A

Like monosaccharides, disaccharides are crystalline, water-soluble substances.

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28
Q

examples of disaccharides

A

Sucrose (table sugar)
Lactose (milk sugar)

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29
Q

Hydrolysis of a disaccharide produces

A

two monosaccharides units

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30
Q

a carbohydrate that contains 3-10 monosaccharide units covalently bonded to each other.

A

Oligosaccharide

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31
Q

are seldom encountered in biochemical systems.

A

“free” oligosaccharides

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32
Q

“free” oligosaccharide are usually found associated with ____ and ____ in complex molecules that have both ____ and _____ functions.

A
  • proteins
  • lipids
  • structural and regulatory
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33
Q

Complete hydrolysis of an oligosaccharide produces

A

several monosaccharide
molecules

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34
Q

-a trisaccharide produces
-a hexassacharide produces

A

-3 monosaccharide
-6 monosaccharides

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35
Q

a polymeric carbohydrate that contains many monosaccharide units covalently bonded to each other

A

polysaccharide

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36
Q

The number of monosaccharide units present in a polysaccharide varies from a ____ ____ ___ to over ____ units.

A

few hundred units to over 50,000

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37
Q

By definition, each member of a pair of stereoisomers must have

A
  • the same molecular formula and
  • same bonding pattern
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38
Q

D- and L- differ in the ____ ____ of atoms in the molecule

A
  • spatial arrangements
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39
Q

two possible isomeric forms

A

stereoisomers

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40
Q

The prefixes ___ and ___found in the complete name of a monosaccharide

A

D- and L-

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41
Q

carbon atom that has four different groups bonded to it

A

Chiral carbon

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42
Q

are images that coincide at all points when the images are laid upon each other.

A

Superimposible mirror images

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43
Q

are images where not all points coincide when the images are laid upon each other.

A

Nonsuperimposable mirror images

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44
Q

The Importance of Chirality

A
  • Sometimes both forms are biologically active, each form giving a different response;
  • Sometimes both elicit the same response, but one form’s response is many times greater than that of the other; and
  • Sometimes only one of the two forms is biochemically active.
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45
Q

a compound that has n chiral centers may exist in a maximum of __ ______ ____.

A
  • 2^n stereoisomeric forms
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46
Q

types of constitutional isomers

A

-Skeletal isomers
- Positional isomers
- functional isomers

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47
Q

Types of stereoisomers

A

enantiomers and diastereomers

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48
Q

stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other

A

Diastereomers

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49
Q

types of diastereomers

A

Cis-trans isomers

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50
Q

is a compound that rotates the plane of polarized light.

A

optically active compound

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51
Q

is a chiral compound that rotates the plane of polarized light in a clockwise direction.

A

dextrorotatory compound

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52
Q

is a chiral compound that rotates the plane of polarized light in a counterclockwise direction.

A

levorotatory compound

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53
Q

Classification of monosaccharides

A

Based on the type of carbonyl group
1. Aldose
2. Ketose

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54
Q

Biochemically important monosaccharides

A
  • D-Glucose
  • D-Galactose
  • D-Fructose
  • D-Ribose
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55
Q
  • Found in high amounts
    in ripe fruits
  • Blood sugar
A

D-Glucose

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56
Q

D-Glucose is also called

A

Dextrose

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57
Q
  • seldom encountered as a
    free monosaccharide
  • Synthesized from glucose in the body for the production of lactose
A

D-Galactose

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58
Q

a disaccharide of
glucose and galactose

A

Lactose

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59
Q

D-Galactose is also called

A

Brain sugar

60
Q

Why is it called Brain sugar?

A

it is a component of
glycoproteins found in brain
and nerve tissue

61
Q

also known as levulose and fruit sugar
* biochemically the most important ketohexose

A

D-Fructose

62
Q

= 5-carbon sugar (pentose)
= Component of ribonucleic acids (RNAs) and energy-rich compounds such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

A

D-Ribose

63
Q

cyclic structures are the dominant forms at ______.

A

equilibrium

64
Q

result from the ability of their carbonyl group (C=O) to react intramolecularly with a hydroxyl group (-OH).

A

cyclic hemiacetals

65
Q

Although monosaccharides exist mostly in cyclic forms, a small amount of the open-chain form is always present, which provides __ ____ ___

A

an aldehyde group

66
Q

aldoses act as reducing agents in such reactions, they are called

A

reducing sugars

67
Q

Tollens and Benedict’s solutions, oxidize the aldehyde end of an aldose to give

A

Aldonic acid

68
Q

Under the basic conditions associated with Tollens and Benedict’s solutions, ketoses are also

A

reducing sugars

69
Q

Under the basic conditions the ketose undergoes a

A

a structural rearrangement

70
Q

The ketose undergoes a structural rearrangement that produces?

A

an aldose, and the aldose then reacts

71
Q

Strong oxidizing agents can oxidize both ends of a monosaccharide at the same time to produce a

A

Dicarboxylic acid

72
Q

polyhydroxy dicarboxylic acids are known as

A

aldaric acids

73
Q

In biochemical systems enzymes can ____ the ____ alcohol end of an aldose such as glucose, without ____ of the _____ ___

A
  • oxidize
  • primary
  • oxidation
  • aldehyde group
74
Q

In biochemical systems enzymes can oxidize the primary alcohol end of an aldose such as glucose, without oxidation of the aldehyde group, to produce an

A

Alduronic acid

75
Q

The carbonyl group present in a monosaccharide (either an aldose or a ketose) can be reduced to a hydroxyl group, using

A

hydrogen as the reducing agent

76
Q

polyhydroxy alcohols are called

A

sugar alcohols or alditols

77
Q

is an acetal formed from a cyclic monosaccharide by replacement of the hemiacetal carbon -OH group with an -OR group

A

Glycoside

78
Q

a glycoside produced from glucose is called

A

glucoside

79
Q

a glycoside produced from galactose is called

A

galactoside

80
Q

____ ___ and their _____ ____ are important building blocks of polysaccharides found in ____ and _____ ___.

A
  • Amino sugars
  • N-acetyl derivatives
  • chitin
  • hyaluronic acid
81
Q

Disaccharide consists two monosaccharide joined through

A

Oxygen bridge

82
Q
A
83
Q

is the bond between two monosaccharides

A

Glycosidic linkage

84
Q

Biochemically Important Disaccharides

A
  • Maltose
  • Cellobiose
  • Lactose
  • Sucrose
85
Q

often called malt sugar
- produced whenever the polysaccharide starch breaks down

A

Maltose

86
Q

Linkage of maltose

A

α(1→4) linkage

87
Q

germinated barley that has been baked and ground;
contains this disaccharide

A

Malt

88
Q

maltose is made up of two _____ ___, one of which must be ___ _____

A
  • D-glucose units
  • α-D-glucose
89
Q

the enzyme that breaks the glucose–glucose α(1→4

A

Maltase

90
Q

an intermediate in the hydrolysis of the polysaccharide cellulose

A

Cellubiose

91
Q

Linkage in cellobiose

A

β(1→4) linkage

92
Q

major sugar found in milk

A

Lactose

93
Q

Lactose is made up of a ______ unit and a _____unit joined by a β(1→4) linkage

A
  • β-D-galactose
  • D-glucose
94
Q

Glycosidic linkage of lactose

A

β(1→4) linkage

95
Q

Lactose can be hydrolyzed by acid or by the enzyme

A

Lactase

96
Q

is a condition in which people lack the enzyme lactase

A

Lactose intolerance

97
Q
  • common table sugar
  • is the most abundant of all disaccharides and occurs throughout the plant kingdom
A

Sucrose

98
Q

Sucrose; _____ and____ in an α,β(1→2) glycosidic linkage

A

α-D-glucose
β-F-fructose

99
Q

glycosidic linkage of sucorse

A

α,β(1→2)

100
Q

Two naturally occuring oligosaccharides

A
  • trisaccharide raffinose
  • tetrasaccharide stachyose
101
Q

is the potato plant’s toxin

A

Solanine

102
Q

Blood type: universal donor

A

Type O

103
Q

Blood Type: Universal Acceptor

A

Type AB

104
Q

is an alternate name for a polysaccharide.

A

glycan

105
Q

Important parameters that distinguish various polysaccharides (or glycans) from each other are:

A
  1. The identity of the monosaccharide repeating unit(s) in the polymer chain.
  2. The length of the polymer chain.
  3. As with disaccharides, the type of glycosidic linkage between monomer units.
  4. The degree of branching of the polymer chain.
106
Q

is a polysaccharide in which only one type of monosaccharide monomer is present

A

homopolysaccharide

107
Q

is a polysaccharide in which more than one (usually two) type of monosaccharide monomer is present.

A

heteropolysaccharide

108
Q

is a polysaccharide that is a storage form for monosaccharides
- used as an energy source in cells.

A

Storage polysaccharide

109
Q

Glucose—-(Glycogenesis)—> _____

A

glycogen

110
Q

the process of storing excess glucose for use by the body at a later time

A

Glycogenesis

111
Q

______<——(Glycogenolysis)—– Glycogen

A

Glucose

112
Q

is the breakdown of glycogen

A

Glycogenolysis

113
Q

the structural component of plant cell walls
- the most abundant naturally occurring polysaccharide

A

Cellulose

114
Q

High concentration of cellulose is found in

A

“Woody” protions of plants - Stems, stalks, and trunks

115
Q

linkage of cellulose

A

β(1→4)

116
Q

Linkage of amylose

A

α(1→4)

117
Q

the second most abundant naturally occurring polysaccharide.

A

Chitin

118
Q

An ____ _____ is a polysaccharide with a disaccharide repeating unit
in which one of the disaccharide components is an ___ ___ and one or both disaccharide components has a negative charge due to a sulfate group or a carboxyl group.

A
  • acidic polysaccharide
  • amino sugar
119
Q

acidic polysaccharides are

A

heteropolysaccharides

120
Q

Two of the most well-known acidic polysaccharides are

A

Hyaluronic acid
Heparin

121
Q

contains alternating residues of N-acetyl-βD-glucosamine (NAG; the monomer of chitin) and D-glucuronate.

A

Hyaluronic acid

122
Q

a small highly sulfated polysaccharide with only 15–90 disaccharide residues per chain.

A

Heparin

123
Q

Heparin is a blood anticoagulant. It is naturally present in ___ ___ and is released at the site of tissue injury

A

mast cells

124
Q

is applied as an anticoagulant to the interior/exterior surface of external objects that come in contact with blood

A

Pharmaceutical-grade heparin

125
Q

is a dietary monosaccharide or dietary disaccharide; are usually sweet to the taste and are commonly referred to as sugars.

A

Simple carbohydrate

126
Q

two types of simple carbohydrate

A
  • Natural sugar
  • Refined sugar
127
Q

is a sugar naturally present in whole foods.

A

Natural sugar

128
Q

is a sugar that has been separated from its plant source.

A

Refined sugar

129
Q

is a dietary polysaccharide.

A

Complex carbohydrate

130
Q

is a lipid molecule that has one or more carbohydrate (or carbohydrate derivative) units covalently bonded to it.

A

Glycolipid

131
Q

is a protein molecule that has one or more carbohydrate (or carbohydrate derivative) units covalently bonded to it.

A

glycoprotein

132
Q

Glycolipids called ____ and gangliosides occur ____ in brain tissue

A

-cerebrosides
-extensively

133
Q

called immunoglobins are key components of the body’s immune system response to invading foreign material

A

Glycoprotein

134
Q

Properties of Hyaluronic acid

A

• Highly viscous; serve as lubricants in the fluid of joints
• also associated with the jelly-like consistency of the vitreous humor of the eye.
• The Greek word hyalos means “glass”; hyaluronic acid solutions have a glass-like appearance.

135
Q

Important sources of natural sugar

A

Milk and fresh fruit

136
Q

Major sources of refined sugar

A

Sugar beets and sugar cane

137
Q

The source for pharmaceutical heparin

A

intestinal or lung tissue of slaughter-house animals (pigs and cows).

138
Q

5 types of antibodies

A

IgA
lgD,
IgE,
IgG, and
IgM

139
Q

-tags pathogens for destruction

A

lgA

140
Q

Where is lgA secreted?

A

Secreted into mucous, saliva, tears colustrum

141
Q

B-cell receptor. Stimulates release of lgM

A

lgD

142
Q

Binds to mast cell and basophils .

A

lgE

143
Q

Where does antibody lgE involve?

A

Allergy and antiparasitic activity

144
Q

Binds to phagocytes.
The main blood antibody for secondary responses.

A

lgG

145
Q

lgG crosses, what?

A

Placenta

146
Q

Fixes complement.
Main antibody of primary responses.

A

lgM

147
Q

B-cell receptor. Immune system memory

A

lgM

Z Biomolecules (Biochemistry) (12 decks)

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