Chapter 7

Question 1

learning

Answer 1

process of obtaining new and enduring information or behaviors

Question 2

associative learning

Answer 2

learning that certain events occur together, either two stimuli or a response and it consequence

Question 3

stimulus

Answer 3

any event or situation that evokes a response

Question 4

cognitive learning

Answer 4

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others or through language

Question 5

operant conditioning

Answer 5

conditioning in which we learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence; we do things expecting a good result

Question 6

classical conditioning

Answer 6

associating two stimuli and then anticipate events

Question 7

observational learning

Answer 7

lets us learn from others’ experience; a form of cognitive learning

Question 8

behaviorism

Answer 8

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. (most agree with 1 but not 2)

Question 9

neutral stimulus (NS)

Answer 9

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Question 10

unconditioned response (UR)

Answer 10

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally – naturally and automatically – triggers a response (UR)

Question 11

conditioned response (CR)

Answer 11

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

Question 12

acquisition

Answer 12

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Question 13

cognitive map

Answer 13

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Question 14

conditioned reinforcer

Answer 14

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

Question 15

continuous reinforcement

Answer 15

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Question 16

discrimination

Answer 16

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Question 17

extinction

Answer 17

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Question 18

extrinsic motivation

Answer 18

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

Question 19

fixed-interval schedule

Answer 19

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Question 20

fixed-ratio schedule

Answer 20

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Question 21

generalization

Answer 21

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Question 22

higher-order conditioning

Answer 22

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.

Question 23

intrinsic motivation

Answer 23

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

Question 24

latent learning

Answer 24

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Question 25

law of effect

Answer 25

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Question 26

mirror neurons

Answer 26

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.

Question 27

modeling

Answer 27

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Question 28

negative reinforcement

Answer 28

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Question 29

operant behavior

Answer 29

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

Question 30

operant chamber

Answer 30

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Question 31

operant conditioning

Answer 31

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Question 32

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Answer 32

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Question 33

positive reinforcement

Answer 33

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Question 34

primary reinforcer

Answer 34

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

Question 35

prosocial behavior

Answer 35

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

Question 36

punishment

Answer 36

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

Question 37

reinforcement

Answer 37

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Question 38

reinforcement schedule

Answer 38

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Question 39

respondent behavior

Answer 39

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

Question 40

shaping

Answer 40

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Question 41

spontaneous recovery

Answer 41

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Question 42

variable-interval schedule

Answer 42

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Question 43

variable-ratio schedule

Answer 43

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.