Chapter 3

Question 1

cognitive neuroscience

Answer 1

our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Question 2

cognitive neuroscience

Answer 2

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Question 3

dual processing

Answer 3

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Question 4

blindsight

Answer 4

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.

Question 5

selective attention

Answer 5

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

Question 6

inattentional blindness

Answer 6

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

Question 7

change blindness

Answer 7

failing to notice changes in the environment.

Question 8

circadian rhythm

Answer 8

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

Question 9

REM sleep

Answer 9

rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

Question 10

alpha waves

Answer 10

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

Question 11

sleep

Answer 11

periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation.

Question 12

hallucinations

Answer 12

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.

Question 13

delta waves

Answer 13

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

Question 14

insomnia

Answer 14

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

Question 15

narcolepsy

Answer 15

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

Question 16

sleep apnea

Answer 16

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

Question 17

night terrors

Answer 17

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.

Question 18

dream

Answer 18

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer’s delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.

Question 19

manifest content

Answer 19

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content)

Question 20

latent content

Answer 20

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content).

Question 21

REM rebound

Answer 21

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

Question 22

hypnosis

Answer 22

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

Question 23

posthypnotic suggestion

Answer 23

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.

Question 24

dissociation

Answer 24

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

Question 25

psychoactive drug

Answer 25

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

Question 26

tolerance

Answer 26

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect

Question 27

addiction

Answer 27

compulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors (such as gambling) despite known adverse consequences

Question 28

withdrawel

Answer 28

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior

Question 29

substance use disorder

Answer 29

continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk.

Question 30

depressants

Answer 30

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

Question 31

alcohol use disorder

Answer 31

(popularly known as alcoholism). Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use.

Question 32

barbiturates

Answer 32

drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.

Question 33

opiates

Answer 33

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

Question 34

stimulants

Answer 34

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, Ecstasy, and methamphetamine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Question 35

amphetamines

Answer 35

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.

Question 36

nicotine

Answer 36

a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco.

Question 37

methamphetamine

Answer 37

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.

Question 38

Ecstasy (MDMA)

Answer 38

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.

Question 39

hallucinogens

Answer 39

psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

Question 40

LSD

Answer 40

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide).

Question 41

near-death experience

Answer 41

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.

Question 42

THC

Answer 42

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations.

Question 43

What is the place of consciousness in psychology’s history?

Answer 43

Since 1960, under the influence of cognitive psychology and neuroscience, consciousness (our awareness of ourselves and our environment) has resumed its place as an important area of research. After initially claiming consciousness as its area of study in the nineteenth century, psychologists had abandoned it in the first half of the twentieth century, turning instead to the study of observable behavior because they believed consciousness was too difficult to study scientifically.

Question 44

What is the “dual processing” being revealed by today’s cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 44

Cognitive neuroscientists and others studying the brain mechanisms underlying consciousness and cognition have discovered that the mind processes information on two separate tracks, one operating at an explicit, conscious level and the other at an implicit, unconscious level. This dual processing affects our perception, memory, attitudes, and other cognitions.

Question 45

How much information do we consciously attend to at once?

Answer 45

We selectively attend to, and process, a very limited portion of incoming information, blocking out much and often shifting the spotlight of our attention from one thing to another. Focused intently on one task, we often display inattentional blindness to other events and changes around us.

Question 46

How do our biological rhythms influence our daily functioning?

Answer 46

Our bodies have an internal biological clock, roughly synchronized with the 24-hour cycle of night and day. This circadian rhythm appears in our daily patterns of body temperature, arousal, sleeping, and waking. Age and experiences can alter these patterns, resetting our biological clock.

Question 47

What is the biological rhythm of our sleeping and dreaming stages?

Answer 47

We cycle through four distinct sleep stages about every 90 minutes. Leaving the alpha waves of the awake, relaxed stage, we descend into the irregular brain waves of non-REM Stage 1 sleep (NREM-1), often with the sensation of falling or floating. NREM-2 sleep (in which we spend the most time) follows, lasting about 20 minutes, with its characteristic sleep spindles. We then enter NREM-3 sleep, lasting about 30 minutes, with large, slow delta waves. About an hour after falling asleep, we begin periods of REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Most dreaming occurs in this stage (also known as paradoxical sleep) of internal arousal but outward paralysis. During a normal night’s sleep, NREM-3 sleep shortens and REM and NREM-2 sleep lengthens.

Question 48

How do biology and environment interact in our sleep patterns?

Answer 48

Biology—our circadian rhythm as well as our age and our body’s production of melatonin (influenced by the brain’s suprachiasmatic nucleus)—interacts with cultural expectations and individual behaviors to determine our sleeping and waking patterns.

Question 49

What are sleep’s functions?

Answer 49

Sleep may have played a protective role in human evolution by keeping people safe during potentially dangerous periods. Sleep also helps restore and repair damaged neurons. REM and NREM-2 sleep help strengthen neural connections that build enduring memories. Sleep promotes creative problem solving the next day, and, finally, during slow-wave sleep, the pituitary gland secretes human growth hormone, which is necessary for muscle development.

Question 50

How does sleep loss affect us, and what are the major sleep disorders?

Answer 50

Sleep deprivation causes fatigue and irritability, and it impairs concentration, productivity, and memory consolidation. It can also lead to depression, obesity, joint pain, a suppressed immune system, and slowed performance (with greater vulnerability to accidents). Sleep disorders include insomnia (recurring wakefulness); narcolepsy (sudden uncontrollable sleepiness or lapsing into REM sleep); sleep apnea (the stopping of breathing while asleep; associated with obesity, especially in men); night terrors (high arousal and the appearance of being terrified; NREM-3 disorder found mainly in children); sleepwalking (NREM-3 disorder also found mainly in children); and sleep talking.

Question 51

What do we dream?

Answer 51

We usually dream of ordinary events and everyday experiences, most involving some anxiety or misfortune. Fewer than 10 percent (and less among women) of dreams have any sexual content. Most dreams occur during REM sleep; those that happen during NREM sleep tend to be vague fleeting images.

Question 52

What are the functions of dreams?

Answer 52

There are five major views of the function of dreams. (1) Freud’s wish-fulfillment: Dreams provide a psychic “safety valve,” with manifest content (story line) acting as a censored version of latent content (underlying meaning that gratifies our unconscious wishes). (2) Information-processing: Dreams help us sort out the day’s events and consolidate them in memory. (3) Physiological function: Regular brain stimulation may help develop and preserve neural pathways in the brain. (4) Neural activation: The brain attempts to make sense of neural static by weaving it into a story line. (5) Cognitive development: Dreams reflect the dreamer’s level of development. Most sleep theorists agree that REM sleep and its associated dreams serve an important function, as shown by the REM rebound that occurs following REM deprivation in humans and other species.

Question 53

What is hypnosis, and what powers does a hypnotist have over a hypnotized subject?

Answer 53

Hypnosis is a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur. Hypnosis does not enhance recall of forgotten events (it may even evoke false memories). It cannot force people to act against their will, though hypnotized people, like unhypnotized people, may perform unlikely acts. Posthypnotic suggestions have helped people harness their own healing powers but have not been very effective in treating addiction. Hypnosis can help relieve pain.

Question 54

Is hypnosis an extension of normal consciousness or an altered state?

Answer 54

Many psychologists believe that hypnosis is a form of normal social influence and that hypnotized people act out the role of “good subject” by following directions given by an authoritative person. Other psychologists view hypnosis as a dissociation—a split between normal sensations and conscious awareness. Selective attention may also contribute by blocking attention to certain stimuli.

Question 55

What are substance use disorders, and what role do tolerance, withdrawal, and addiction play in these disorders?

Answer 55

Those with a substance use disorder may exhibit impaired control, social disruption, risky behavior, and the physical effects of tolerance and withdrawal. Psychoactive drugs alter perceptions and moods. They may produce tolerance—requiring larger doses to achieve the desired effect—and withdrawal—significant discomfort accompanying attempts to quit. Addiction is the compulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors (such as gambling) despite known adverse consequences.

Question 56

What are depressants, and what are their effects?

Answer 56

Depressants, such as alcohol, barbiturates, and the opiates, dampen neural activity and slow body functions. Alcohol tends to disinhibit, increasing the likelihood that we will act on our impulses, whether harmful or helpful. It also impairs judgment, disrupts memory processes by suppressing REM sleep, and reduces self-awareness and self-control. User expectations strongly influence alcohol’s behavioral effects.

Question 57

What are stimulants, and what are their effects?

Answer 57

Stimulants—including caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, the amphetamines, methamphetamine, and Ecstasy—excite neural activity and speed up body functions, triggering energy and mood changes. All are highly addictive. Nicotine’s effects make smoking a difficult habit to kick, yet the percentage of Americans who smoke has been dramatically decreasing. Cocaine gives users a fast high, followed within an hour by a crash. Its risks include cardiovascular stress and suspiciousness. Use of methamphetamines may permanently reduce dopamine production. Ecstasy (MDMA) is a combined stimulant and mild hallucinogen that produces euphoria and feelings of intimacy. Its users risk immune system suppression, permanent damage to mood and memory, and (if taken during physical activity) dehydration and escalating body temperatures.

Question 58

What are hallucinogens, and what are their effects?

Answer 58

Hallucinogens—such as LSD and marijuana—distort perceptions and evoke hallucinations—sensory images in the absence of sensory input. The user’s mood and expectations influence the effects of LSD, but common experiences are hallucinations and emotions varying from euphoria to panic. Marijuana’s main ingredient, THC, may trigger feelings of disinhibition, euphoria, relaxation, relief from pain, and intense sensitivity to sensory stimuli. It may also increase feelings of depression or anxiety, impair motor coordination and reaction time, disrupt memory formation, and damage lung tissue (because of the inhaled smoke).

Question 59

Why do some people become regular users of consciousness-altering drugs?

Answer 59

Some people may be biologically vulnerable to particular drugs, such as alcohol. Psychological factors (such as stress, depression, and hopelessness) and social factors (such as peer pressure) combine to lead many people to experiment with—and sometimes become addicted to—drugs. Cultural and ethnic groups have differing rates of drug use. Each type of influence—biological, psychological, and social-cultural—offers a possible path for drug prevention and treatment programs.