Chapter 1

Question 1

Hindsight Bias

Answer 1

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. AKA the “I knew it all along phenomenon”

Question 2

Critical Thinking

Answer 2

Thinking that doesn’t blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Question 3

Theory

Answer 3

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Question 4

Hypothesis

Answer 4

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Question 5

Operational Definition

Answer 5

A statement that describes how to measure a particular variable or how to define a particular term. For example: human intelligence may be operationally defined as “what an intelligence test measures”

Question 6

Replication

Answer 6

the repetition of an experiment in order to test the validity of its conclusion. It’s usually with different participants in different situations.

Question 7

Case Study

Answer 7

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Question 8

Naturalistic Observation

Answer 8

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Question 9

Survey

Answer 9

A study, generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire, that provides researchers with information about how people think and act.

Question 10

Population

Answer 10

All the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: except for national studies, this doesn’t refer to a country’s whole population).

Question 11

Random Sample

Answer 11

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Question 12

Correlation

Answer 12

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Question 13

Correlation Coefficient

Answer 13

A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Question 14

Scatterplot

Answer 14

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables., A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

Question 15

Experiment

Answer 15

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Question 16

Control Group

Answer 16

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Question 17

Random Assignment

Answer 17

Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Question 18

Double-Blind Procedure

Answer 18

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Question 19

Placebo Effect

Answer 19

A harmless pill, medicine, or procedure prescribed more for the psychological benefit to the patient than for any physiological effect.

Question 20

Independent Variable

Answer 20

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

Question 21

Confounding Variable

Answer 21

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Question 22

Dependent Variable

Answer 22

Dependent Variable The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Question 23

Mode

Answer 23

The number that occurs most often in a set of data

Question 24

Mean

Answer 24

Average (add all the numbers and divide by how many numbers in that set)

Question 25

Median

Answer 25

Middle Number

Question 26

Range

Answer 26

Distance between highest and lowest scores in a set of data.

Question 27

Standard Deviation

Answer 27

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Question 28

Normal Curve

Answer 28

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

Question 29

Statistical Significance

Answer 29

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Question 30

Culture

Answer 30

Beliefs, customs, and traditions of a specific group of people.

Question 31

Informed Consent

Answer 31

An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Question 32

Debriefing

Answer 32

A verbal description of the true nature and purpose of the study

Question 33

Experimental Group

Answer 33

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Question 34

How do hindsight bias, overconfidence, and the tendency to perceive order in random events illustrate why science-based answers are more valid than those based on intuition and common sense?

Answer 34

Hindsight bias (also called the “I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon”) is the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it. Overconfidence in our judgments results partly from our bias to seek information that confirms them. These tendencies, plus our eagerness to perceive patterns in random events, lead us to overestimate our intuition. Although limited by the testable questions it can address, scientific inquiry can help us overcome our intuition’s biases and shortcomings.

Question 35

How do the scientific attitude’s three main components relate to critical thinking

Answer 35

The scientific attitude equips us to be curious, skeptical, and humble in scrutinizing competing ideas or our own observations. This attitude carries into everyday life as critical thinking, which puts ideas to the test by examining assumptions, discerning hidden values, evaluating evidence, and assessing conclusions.

Question 36

How do theories advance psychological science?

Answer 36

Psychological theories are explanations that apply an integrated set of principles to organize observations and generate hypotheses—predictions that can be used to check the theory or produce practical applications of it. By testing their hypotheses, researchers can confirm, reject, or revise their theories. To enable other researchers to replicate the studies, researchers report them using precise operational definitions of their procedures and concepts. If others achieve similar results, confidence in the conclusion will be greater.

Question 37

How do psychologists use case studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys to observe and describe behavior, and why is random sampling important?

Answer 37

Descriptive methods, which include case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys, show us what can happen, and they may offer ideas for further study. The best basis for generalizing about a population is a representative sample; in a random sample, every person in the entire population being studied has an equal chance of participating. Descriptive methods cannot show cause and effect because researchers cannot control variables.

Question 38

What are positive and negative correlations, and why do they enable prediction but not cause-effect explanation?

Answer 38

In a positive correlation, two factors rise or fall together. In a negative correlation, one item rises as the other falls. Scatterplots can help us to see correlations. A correlation coefficient can describe the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables, from +1.00 (a perfect positive correlation) through zero (no correlation at all) to −1.00 (a perfect negative correlation). A correlation can indicate the possibility of a cause-effect relationship, but it does not prove the direction of the influence, or whether an underlying third factor may explain the correlation.

Question 39

What are the characteristics of experimentation that make it possible to isolate cause and effect?

Answer 39

To discover cause-effect relationships, psychologists conduct experiments, manipulating one or more factors of interest and controlling other factors. Using random assignment, they can minimize confounding variables, such as preexisting differences between the experimental group (exposed to the treatment) and the control group (given a placebo or different version of the treatment). The independent variable is the factor the experimenter manipulates to study its effect; the dependent variable is the factor the experimenter measures to discover any changes occurring in response to the manipulations. Studies may use a double-blind procedure to avoid the placebo effect and researcher’s bias.

Question 40

How can we describe data with measures of central tendency and variation?

Answer 40

A measure of central tendency is a single score that represents a whole set of scores. Three such measures are the mode (the most frequently occurring score), the mean (the arithmetic average), and the median (the middle score in a group of data). Measures of variation tell us how diverse data are. Two measures of variation are the range (which describes the gap between the highest and lowest scores) and the standard deviation (which states how much scores vary around the mean, or average, score). Scores often form a normal (or bell-shaped) curve.

Question 41

How do we know whether an observed difference can be generalized to other populations?

Answer 41

To feel confident about generalizing an observed difference to other populations, we would want to know that the sample studied was representative of the larger population being studied; that the observations, on average, had low variability; that the sample consisted of more than a few cases; and that the observed difference was statistically significant.

Question 42

Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?

Answer 42

Researchers intentionally create a controlled, artificial environment in the laboratory in order to test general theoretical principles. These general principles help explain everyday behaviors.

Question 43

Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender?

Answer 43

Attitudes and behaviors may vary somewhat by gender or across cultures, but because of our shared human kinship, the underlying processes and principles are more similar than different.

Question 44

Why do psychologists study animals, and what ethical guidelines safeguard human and animal research participants?

Answer 44

Some psychologists are primarily interested in animal behavior; others want to better understand the physiological and psychological processes shared by humans and other species. Government agencies have established standards for animal care and housing. Professional associations and funding agencies also establish guidelines for protecting animals’ well-being. The APA ethics code outlines standards for safeguarding human participants’ well-being, including obtaining their informed consent and debriefing them later.

Question 45

Is psychology free of value judgments?

Answer 45

Psychologists’ values influence their choice of research topics, their theories and observations, their labels for behavior, and their professional advice. Applications of psychology’s principles have been used mainly in the service of humanity.