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Cognitive Psychology > Chapter 7 > Flashcards

Chapter 7 Flashcards

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1
Q

retrieval

A

bringing information into consciousness by transferring it from LTM to working memory

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2
Q

encoding

A

the process of acquiring information and transferring it to LTM

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3
Q

transfer-appropriate processing

A
  • when the type of task that occurs during encoding matches the type of task that occurs during retrieval
  • aka “tap”
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4
Q

morris et al. (1977) retrieval and encoding

A
  • when the processes and encoding are retrieved and appropriate for completing the current task participants show better performance
  • in the study processes engaged earlier when completing a rhyming task would be appropriate for performing a rhyming test
  • these retrieved processes should help facilitate ones performance
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5
Q

maintenance rehearsal

A
  • rehearsal that involves repetition without any consideration of meaning or making connections to other information
  • involves little or no encoding and therefore poor memory
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6
Q

elaborative rehearsal

A
  • rehearsal that involves thinking about the meaning of an item to be remembered or making connections between that item and prior knowledge
  • e.g. trying to remember a phone number. The first 3 digits may be the same as yours, and the last 4 may the year your mother was born
  • results in better memory
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7
Q

levels of processing

A
  • the idea that memory depends on how information is encoded, with better memory being achieved when processing is deep than when processing is shallow
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8
Q

shallow processing

A
  • processing that involves repetition with little attention to meaning
  • shallow processing is usually associated with maintenance rehearsal
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9
Q

deep processing

A
  • processing that involves attention to meaning and relating an item to something else
  • deep processing is usually associated with elaborative rehearsal
  • deep processing results in better memory
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10
Q

levels of processing (craik and tulving)

A
  • proposed that the extent of processing an item (depth of processing) will determine its likelihood of being remembered
  • participants were given a memory test to see how well they recalled the words
  • 3 categories:
    1. Determining if a word was lower or capital case = shallow processing
    2. rhyming = deeper processing
    3. fitting into a sentence = deepest processing
  • words that you had to make a judgment to whether it fit a sentence frame had better recall because you had to process those words at a deep semantic level
  • deep encoding = better recall
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11
Q

paired-associate learning

A

a learning task in which participants are first presented with pairs of words, then one word of each pair is presented and the task is to recall the other word

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12
Q

visual images (bower nad winzenz (1970)

A
  • tested whether using visual imagery can enhance memory
  • visualizing an image of paired associates results in better recall than rote rehearsal (silent repetition)
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13
Q

self-reference effect (leshikar)

A

memory for a word is improved by relating the word to the self

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14
Q

generation effect (slameka and graf)

A

memory for material is better when a person generates the material themselves, rather than passively receiving it

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15
Q

organizing information

A
  • results from multiple research experiments ​​show that participants spontaneously organize items as they recall them
  • organized Information in LTM helps to facilitate recall
  • one reason for this result is that remembering words in a particular category may serve as a retrieval cue
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16
Q

retrieval cue

A
  • is a word or other stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory
  • e.g. location, hearing a song, smell
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17
Q

testing effect

A

Karpick and Roediger (2008) found that routine testing results in better performance

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18
Q

memory as an evolutionary process (nairne 2010)

A
  • proposed that we can understand how memory works by considering its function
  • through the process of evolution, memory was shaped to increase the ability to survive
  • concluded that “survival processing” is a powerful tool for encoding items into memory
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19
Q

effective studying (6)

A
  1. elaboration
  2. generate and test
  3. organize
  4. take breaks
  5. avoid “illusions of learning”
  6. be an “active” note-taker
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20
Q

elaboration

A
  • thinking about what you are reading and giving it meaning by relating it to other things that you know
  • it is a process that helps transfer the material you are reading into long-term memory
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21
Q

generate and test

A
  • taking an active role in creating material is a powerful way to achieve strong encoding and good long-term retrieval
  • repeatedly testing yourself on material you are studying results in improved memory
22
Q

organize

A

the goal of organizing material is to create a framework that helps relate some information to other information to make the material more meaningful and therefore strengthen encoding

23
Q

take breaks

A
  • research also shows that memory performance is enhanced when sleep follows learning
  • e.g. spacing effect
24
Q

spacing effect

A

the advantage in performance caused by short study sessions separated by breaks from studying

25
Q

avoid “illusions of learning”

A
  • specific study techniques favored by students may appear to be more effective than they actually are
  • e.g. rereading as a study technique is that it can create the illusion that learning is occurring when in reality is results in fluency
  • e.g. highlighting seems like elaborative processing but it often becomes an automatic behaviour with little deep thinking about material
26
Q

be an “active” note-taker

A
  • computer note taking can result in shallower processing of the material, and therefore poorer performance on exams
  • long-hand note taking is superior to laptop note taking
27
Q

free recall

A
  • a procedure for testing memory in which the participant is asked to recall stimuli that were previously presented
  • stimuli could be words previously presented by the experimenter or events experienced earlier in the participant’s life
  • this can be used in many experiments such as serial position curve experiments
28
Q

cued recall

A
  • a procedure for testing memory in which a participant is presented with cues to aid recall of previously experienced stimuli
  • cues are typically words or phrases
  • better performance than free recall
29
Q

encoding specificity

A
  • we encode information and its context
  • successful retrieval is dependent on how much the conditions at encoding matches conditions at retrieval.
  • e.g. encoding many experiences at your grandparents house, when returning to their house contect is reinstated and those experiences are remembered
30
Q

golden and baddely “diving experiment”

A
  • one group of participants wore diving gear and studied a list of words underwater
  • the other group studied the words on land
  • these groups were then divided so that half the participants in each group were tested for land recall and underwater recall
  • results shown that the best recall occurred when encoding and trivial occurred in the same location
31
Q

state-dependent learning

A

matching the internal mood present during encoding and retrieval

32
Q

consolidation

A
  • the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption
  • making memories resistant to disruption
33
Q

2 types of consolidation

A
  1. synaptic consolidation
  2. systems consolidation
    - looking at these forms of consolidation it is accurate to think of them as occurring together but at different speeds and at different levels of the nervous system
34
Q

synaptic consolidation

A
  • a process of consolidation that involves structural changes at synapses that happen rapidly, over a period of minutes
  • results in long-term potentiation (LTP)
  • works rapidly at the level of the synapse
35
Q

systems consolidation

A
  • neural circuits involving the hippocampus and cortex are reorganized over long timescale, lasting weeks, months, or even years
  • works slowly at the level of neural circuits
36
Q

long-term potentiation (LTP)

A
  • enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation at the synapse
  • strengthening of synaptic transmission is an outcome of structural changes to the synapse as a result of LTP
  • e.g. the first time that neuron A is stimulated, neuron B fires slowly, but after repeated stimulation, neuron B fires much more rapidly to the same stimulus
37
Q

synaptic consolidation according to donald hebb

A
  • proposed that synaptic changes reflect learning and memory
  • experiences change synaptic structure, neural firing rate, and amount of neurotransmitter that is released.
38
Q

the standard model of consolidation

A
  • proposes that memory retrieval depends on the hippocampus during consolidation, but that once consolidation is complete, retrieval no longer depends on the hippocampus
  • participation of the hippocampus is crucial during early stages of memory, as it is replaying the neural activity associated with a memory and sending this information to the cortex
39
Q

reactivation

A
  • occurs during memory consolidation, in which the hippocampus replays the neural activity associated with a memory
  • during reactivation, activity occurs in the network connecting the hippocampus and the cortex
  • apart of the standard model
40
Q

retrograde amnesia

A
  • loss of memory for something that happened prior to an injury or traumatic event such as a concussion
  • can extend back minutes, hours or even years depending on the nature of the injury
  • a part of the standard model
41
Q

graded amnesia

A
  • when amnesia is most severe for events that occurred prior to an injury and becomes less severe for earlier, more remote events - this is a characteristics of retrograde amnesia
  • suggests that these memories had more time for cortical connections to strengthen making the memory trace more resistant to disruption
42
Q

multiple trace model of consolidation

A
  • the idea that the hippocampus is involved in the retrieval of remote memories, especially episodic memories
  • this contrasts with the standard model of memory, which proposes that the hippocampus is involved only in the retrieval of recent memories
43
Q

gilboa et al. (2004)

A
  • elicited recent and remote episodic memories by showing participants photographs of themselves engaging in various activities that were taken at times ranging from very recently to the distant past
  • the results of this experiment showed that the hippocampus was activated during retrieval of both recent and remote episodic memories
  • remote memories more strongly associated with prefrontal cortex than recent memories
44
Q

multivoxel pattern analysis (MVPA)

A

a procedure for determining the pattern of voxel activation that is elicited by specific stimuli, within various structures

45
Q

consolidation and sleep

A
  • recent research supports the idea that although the reactivation process associated with consolidation may begin as soon as a memory is formed, it is particularly strong during sleep
  • through research it is found that the reason is that going to sleep eliminates environmental stimuli that might interfere with consolidation
46
Q

wilhelm et al. (2011) experiment

A
  • expectation to recall information enhanced memory
  • practice finding matching pairs of cards
  • expected condition: told they would be tested on this task
  • unexpected condition: told they would be tested on another task
  • memories that we consider important are strengthened by consolidation
47
Q

reconsolidation

A
  • the idea that when a memory is retrieved (remembered), it becomes fragile, like when it was originally formed, and that when it is in this fragile state, it needs to be consolidated again
  • when the memory has become fragile again, and before it has been reconsolidated, it can be modified or eliminated
48
Q

practical outcomes of reconsolidation

A

reactivation of a memory followed by reconsolidation can help alleviate the symptoms of PTSD

49
Q

semantic memory

A

facts and general knowledge

50
Q

episodic memory

A

events, experiences and personal details

51
Q

gais sleep consolidation

A
  • propose that sleep enhances consolidation
  • paired-associates (English-German words)
  • sleep condition: slept within 3 hours of studying
  • awake condition: stayed awake 10 hours after studying
  • sleep enhances consolidation OR, those in the sleep condition experienced less interference

Cognitive Psychology (9 decks)

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