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Psychology 201: Exam 2 > Chapter 7 > Flashcards

Chapter 7 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is memory?

A

The retention of information or experience over time.

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2
Q

What are the three key processes involved in memory?

A

Encoding, storage, retrieval

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3
Q

What is encoding?

A

The first step in memory; the process by which information gets into memory storage.

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4
Q

What are some different encoding processes?

A

Paying attention, processing deeply, elaborating, and using mental imagery.

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5
Q

What are different types of attention?

A

Selective attention, divided attention, and sustained attention.

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6
Q

What is divided attention?

A

Concentrating on more than one activity at a time. Has negative consequences for learning/memory.

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7
Q

What is sustained attention?

A

Also known as vigilance. It is the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time. Ex: listening to me for an hour and not tweeting/snapping.

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8
Q

What is levels of processing? And what are they?

A

A continuum of memory processing from shallow to intermediate to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory. Shallow processing is rote physical traits. Intermediate processing is giving it a category label. Deep processing is attaching meaningful personal experience. Deeper processing leads to better recall. Thing about these with the word mom.

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9
Q

What is elaboration?

A

The formation of a number of different connections (cues) around a stimulus at any given level of memory encoding. It enhances memory because with many ques more likely to remember the target.

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10
Q

What are different ways to elaborate?

A

Vivid imagery, self referencing, memory wizards.

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11
Q

What is vivid imagery?

A

A person conjuries up pictures that are associated with each thing that needs to be remembered. Ex: thinking about training your dog with classical conditioning.

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12
Q

What is self referencing?

A

Relating material to your own experience.

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13
Q

What did Allan Paivio believe?

A

He agues that memory is stored in two ways: as a verbal code or an image code. He believes that an image code produces better memory than a verbal code. He created the Dual code hypothesis.

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14
Q

What was the dual code hypothesis?

A

Paivios’s claim that memory for pictures (image code) is better than memory for words (verbal code) because pictures (at least those that can be named) are stored as both image codes and verbal codes. Ex: sunset.

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15
Q

What is memory storage?

A

The retention of information over time and how this information is represented in memory.

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16
Q

What is the Atkinson-Shiffrin theory of storage?

A

Created by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968. It states that memory storage involves three separate systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

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17
Q

What is sensory memory?

A

Memory system that involves holding information from the world in its original form (very detailed) for only an instant (a second to several seconds), not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other senses. (like bottom up processing) There are two types: echoic memory and iconic memory.

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18
Q

What is echoic memory?

A

Auditory sensory memory. Your ears

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19
Q

What is iconic memory?

A

Visual sensory memory that is retained for only a quarter of a second. This allows your to write words with sparklers because you see the trail from it because of the delay.

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20
Q

What is short term memory?

A

Limited capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for only as long as 30 seconds unless the individual uses strategies to retain it longer. George Miller found the idea that you can only remember a range of 7 +/- 2. Example: phone numbers.

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21
Q

What are two ways to improve short term memory?

A

Chunking-involves grouping or “packing information that exceeds the 7 +/- 2 memory span into higher-order units that can be remembered as single units. Rehearsal-the conscious repetition of information.

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22
Q

What is the issue with short term memory?

A

It doesn’t capture our ability to manipulate information like problem solving.

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23
Q

What is working memory?

A

A combination of components, including short term memory and attention, that allows individuals to hold information temporarily as they preform cognitive tasks: like a kind of mental workbench on which the brain manipulates and assembles information to guide understanding, decision making, and problem solving.

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24
Q

What are the different components of working memory?

A

phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and central executive. Alan Baddeley proposed this idea.

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25
Q

What is the phonological loop?

A

Briefly stores speech-based info about sounds of language.

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26
Q

What is visuo-spatial sketchpad?

A

Stores visual and spatial info, including visual imagery. The capacity is limited.

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27
Q

What is the central executive?

A

Integrates information from the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and long term memory.

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28
Q

What is long term memory?

A

A relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amount of information for a long time.

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29
Q

Explain how long term memory is structured.

A

Long term memory is divided into substructures of explicit memory and implicit memory. Explicit memory can be further divided into episodic and semantic memory. Implicit memory includes the systems involved in procedural memory, classical conditioning, and priming.

30
Q

What is explicit memory?

A

Also called declarative memory. Conscious recollection of information such as specific facts and events that can be verbally communicated. Made up of episodic memory and semantic memory. Also considered to have permastore memory.

31
Q

What is permastore memory?

A

Portion of original learning that seems to stay with us forever. Ex recognizing high school classmates years later.

32
Q

What is episodic memory?

A

The retention of information about the where, when, and what of life’s happenings. That is, how individuals remember life’s episodes.

33
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

A person’s knowledge about the world, including his or her areas of expertise; general knowledge, such as of things learned in school, and everyday knowledge.

34
Q

What is implicit memory?

A

Also called non declarative memory. It is memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience. Skills like playing tennis or snowboarding. Little Albert as a 20 year old be terrified of a bunny.

35
Q

What is procedural memory?

A

Memory for skills. Like learning to drive or ride a bike.

36
Q

What is priming?

A

Activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember new information better and faster. Ex: stem completion task which is filling in the blank of a word. Like the butt example in class.

37
Q

How is the memory organized?

A

Schema and connectionist networks

38
Q

What is schema?

A

A preexisting mental concept or framework that helps people to organize and interpret information. They are from prior encounters with the environment the influence the way individuals encode, make inferences about, and retrieve information. Example: going to a new restaurant.

39
Q

What is a script?

A

A schema for an event that includes information about physical features, people, ad typical occurrences. Example: What is your script for taking the dog out?

40
Q

What is connectionism?

A

Also known as Parallel distributed processing (PDP). The theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons which may work together to process a single memory. Memories are electrical impulses. Organized sets of neurons that are routinely activated together.

41
Q

What is retrieval?

A

The memory process that occurs when information that was retained in memory comes out of storage. A lot depends on the circumstances encoding and the way it was retained.

42
Q

What is the serial position effect?

A

The tendency to recall the items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle. Primacy effect: better recall for items at the beginning of a list. Recency effect: better recall for items at the end.

43
Q

What is recall?

A

A memory task in which the individual has to retrieve previously learned information, as on essay tests.

44
Q

What is recognition?

A

A memory task in which the individual has to identify/recognize learned items, as on multiple choice tests.

45
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle?

A

States that information present at the time of encoding tends to be effective as a retrieval cue. For example, seeing your professor in lecture clothing as opposed to seeing them in gym clothes so you cannot remember their name.

46
Q

What is the context-dependent memory?

A

An important consequence of encoding specificity in which a change in context between encoding and retrieval can cause memory to fail. Many instances where people remember better when they attempt to recall information in the same context in which they learned it.

47
Q

What are some special kinds of memory?

A

Autobiographical memory and emotional memories.

48
Q

What is autobiographical memory?

A

A special form of episodic memory, consisting of a person’s recollections of his or her life experiences. In this is the idea of the reminiscence bump which is the effect that adults remember more events from the second and third decades of life than from other decades (life event bump).

49
Q

Name the three levels of autobiographical memory.

A

Created by Martin Conway and David Rubin
Life time periods: might remember something about your life in high school.
General events: a trip you took with your friends after you graduated from high school.
Event-specific knowledge: From your trip, you might remember the exhilarating experience you had the first time you jet-skied.

50
Q

What are some retrieval of emotional memories?

A

Flashbulb memories, traumatic events, repressed memories, and eyewitness testimonies.

51
Q

What is flashbulb memories?

A

The memory of emotionally significant events that people often recall with more accuracy and vivid imagery than everyday events. Ex: 9/11

52
Q

What is motivated forgetting?

A

Forgetting that occurs when something so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering it is intolerable. (A part of repressed memories)

53
Q

What is false memories?

A

Failure to distinguish real memories (external sources) from self-generated thoughts (internal source) Example talking to your friend vs. thinking about talking to your friend.

54
Q

What can affect memories?

A

Distortion: altered by new information with leading questions or trying too hard to remember.
Bias: example racial
Inaccuracy: fading with time.

55
Q

What did Herman Ebbinghaus do?

A

The first person to conduct a scientific research on forgetting. In 1885, he made up and memorized a list of 13 nonsense syllables and then assessed how many of them he could remember as time passed.

56
Q

What is encoding failure?

A

Occurs when the information was never entered into long-term memory.

57
Q

What is an example of retrieval failure?

A

Interference

58
Q

What is interference theory?

A

The theory that people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember. Proactive interference and retroactive interference are two types.

59
Q

What is the proactive interference?

A

Situation in which material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of material that was learned later. (Learned French vocabulary when affects learning Spanish now.)

60
Q

What is retroactive interference?

A

Situation in which material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier. (Learning French now which affects the learned Spanish)

61
Q

What is the decay theory?

A

Theory stating that when an individual learns something new, a neurochemical memory trace forms, but over time this trace disintegrates; suggests that the passage of time always increases forgetting (but doesn’t explain all instances).

62
Q

What is tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT)?

A

Type of effortful retrieval associated with a person’s feeling that he or she knows something (say a word or a name) but cannot quite pull it out of memory. Can retrieve some information but not all information.

63
Q

What is retrospective memory?

A

Remembering information from the past.

64
Q

What is prospective memory?

A

Remembering information about doing something in the future; includes memory for intentions. (includes both timing and content)

65
Q

What is time based prospective memory?

A

Our intention to engage in a given behavior after a specified amount of time has gone by (making a phone call after an hour)

66
Q

What is content/event based prospective memory?

A

We engage in the intended behavior when some external event or cue elicits it. (when we give a message to a roommate when we see her).

67
Q

What is amnesia and what are the two types?

A

The loss of memory; anterograde amnesia and retrograde amneisa.

68
Q

What is anterograde amnesia?

A

A memory disorder that affects the retention of new information and events (Example: H.M. and Clive Wearing and his wife/kids)

69
Q

What is retrograde amnesia?

A

Memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new events. More common than anterograde.

70
Q

What are the roles of autobiographical memories?

A

Learn from our experience, develop sense of identity, and bond with others.

71
Q

What is the idea around memory and aging?

A

Indicator of brain functioning. Activity inoculates against mental decline. Both physical and mental activity are important.

Psychology 201: Exam 2 (3 decks)

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