Chapter 6: 'Transnational policing and security', BLOCK 2 BOOK 2

Question 1

ORGANISED CRIME

Answer 1

1. ORGANISED CRIME: A concept emerging first in the United States in the 1920’s but now used internationally - for example, by the United Nations and G8 countries - as shorthand to describe a range of serious crimes that are deemed especially difficult to control.
2. It may be defined as the ongoing activities of those collectively engaged in production, supply and financing for illegal markets in goods and services.
    

Question 2

TRANSNATIONAL POLICING

Answer 2

1. TRANSNATIONAL POLICING: Policing activity that involves systems of cooperation that cross national boundaries.
2. Such activity need not be restricted to law enforcement, but may be extended to take in the whole range of police functions including:
   a) crime prevention activity
   b) social service provision
   c) training
   d) risk assessment and management
   e) state security.
3. Transnational policing is not new.
4. THE SYSTEM is undergoing unprecedented changes due to:
   a) increase in global crime
   b) terrorist threats
   c) increasing demands made by legitimate trade and businesses for the control of threats to the safety of their goods and services.

Question 3

WHAT IS POLICING?

Answer 3

1. One definition of front-line policing is that it is the 24/7 first response service.
2. This describes the broad role that the public police have claimed for themselves as a COVER-ALL emergency service and legitimate body of physical control.
3. STATE-RUN POLICE - are sanctioned to use physical force where deemed necessary (WESTMARLAND, 2001).
4. This is supervised by senior police leaders who are democratically overseen by the HOME OFFICE in the UK and those directly elected in the USA.
5. POLICE - are also subject to:
   a) rules and discipline
   b) and a police complaints procedure should their behaviour fall short of that expected.
6. BITTNER (2005) - state police have an ability to respond something that shouldn’t be happening, and which someone had better do something about now.
7. Community safety officers might be engaged in such work.

but

it is normally sworn police officers that:

a) make arrests
b) use physical force if required
c) are controlled and accountable to strict guidance such as those outlined in the Police and Criminal Evidence Act (1984). (PACE).

Question 4

WAYS PEOPLE ARE POLICED.

Answer 4

1. People are policed;

a) at home - TV LICENCE
b) work - SECURITY/CCTV
c) public places - SECURITY/CCTV/POLICE
d) leisure facilities - SECURITY/CCTV/BOUNCERS.

Question 5

HOW POLICING OPERATES AT A ‘LOCAL LEVEL.’

EXAMPLE - DOMESTIC ABUSE:

private abuse and violence suffered by some women has now become a matter for sworn ‘public police’.

Answer 5

1. How THAMES VALLEY POLICE deal with DOMESTIC VIOLENCE (THAMES VALLEY POLICE, 2009).
   a) domestic abuses incidents are now graded as ‘urgent’ at a minimum.
   b) police officers aim to respond in 1 hour or quicker.
   c) officers must publicly intervene in all domestic abuse incidents.
   d) Arrest of the perpetrator must always be considered, and officers must justify why they do not arrest the perpetrator.
   e) This has led to an increase in the no. of people arrested for DOMESTIC VIOLENCE.
   f) Domestic violence has not been policed well in the past (WALKLATE, 2008).

Question 6

HOW ‘PRIVATE SPACES’ ARE CONTROLLED (HOBBS, 2003).

EXAMPLES - MANCHESTER and NOTTINGHAM.

Street-level violence - in some cases public functions have become more private, i.e security staff/bouncers in UK CITIES outnumber sworn police officers by 25 to 1.

Answer 6

1. MANCHESTER
   a) attracts crowds of 100,000 on Saturday and Friday nights.
   b) There are 30-40 OFFICERS engaged on PUBLIC ORDER DUTY at these times.
   c) BUT - there are 1000 BOUNCERS simultaneously controlling the crowds per night.
2. NOTTINGHAM
   a) There are 50, 000 people out in Nottingham Friday and Saturday evenings.
   b) It is policed by 20-25 sworn police officers
   c) BUT - is simultaneously policed by 400 BOUNCERS.

Question 7

PRIVATE AND SEMI-PRIVATE SPACES.

Answer 7

1. These different private arenas such as domestic violence and policing city centres pose different problems for forces of LAW AND ORDER at both a micro and macro-level.
2. FOR INSTANCE - Control of the work place is often taken care of IN-HOUSE with little state involvement.
3. ALSO -
   a) Shopping malls
   b) leisure centres
   c) and facilities and places where these meet public spaces such as sidewalks/pavements/street are being patrolled by ‘PRIVATE COMPANIES’ rather than traditional ‘sworn’ police officers.
4. These SPACES are sometimes described as SEMI-PRIVATE (as they are open to the public, but are regulated by laws and rules applied to private property.

Question 8

CONTROL AND REGULATION

Answer 8

1. In ENGLAND and WALES - the number of PRIVATE SECURITY POLICE is double that of SWORN POLICE OFFICERS.
2. Despite the introduction of a REGULATION SCHEME and REGULATORY BODY (the Security Industry Authority (SIA) - The scheme is largely voluntary for COMPANIES that employ ‘IN-HOUSE SECURITY STAFF’.
3. HOWEVER - ORGANISATIONS that provide SECURITY PERSONNEL such as bouncers and their workers have to be registered in this scheme.
4. The UK Government has handed out control to ‘CORPORATE rather than a LEGISLATIVE BODY which lacks the power of similar organisations in EUROPE (BUTTON, 2007).
5. FOR EXAMPLE - In Spain and Belgium - state controlled regulatory systems include training, licences, and character checks of employees (BUTTON, 2007).
6. In ENGLAND and WALES in 2007 - There were 141,731 ‘sworn’ police officers.
7. At the same time - there were 222,000 SIA guards (security) and door supervisors.
8. Growing numbers of security workers are taking the place of ‘sworn’ police officers, with full powers of arrest and training in legal issues etc.
9. This issue is not new - private policing has always co-existed with public policing.
10. QUESTION - has the proliferation of policing and privatisation thus created an over-policed society?

Question 9

THE ‘MASS PRIVATE PROPERTY’ HYPOTHESIS (SHEARING and STENNING, 1983).

Answer 9

1. The MASS PRIVATE PROPERTY HYPOTHESIS was termed by SHEARING and STENNING (1983).
2. It argues that previously public places such as shopping malls etc are being:

a) controlled
b) monitored
c) and subjected to surveillance.

3. This leads to the exclusion of unwelcome people and activities.
4. CRAWFORD and LISTER (2006) - have argued that the agencies that are now involved in governance and patrol of these public/private spaces are the ‘EXTENDED POLICING FAMILY’ supplementing visible policing to keep social order.
5. MODERN POLICING - is not simply the preserve of the police, it is carried out in partnership with a wide range of agencies (FLANAGHAN, 2008).
6. AS A RESULT - The governments aim is to encourage such agencies to work in partnership using JOINED-UP POLICING’ to address ‘social problems’ that the police cannot address on their own.

Question 10

‘HISTORY’ OF CROSS-BORDER POLICE COOPERATION.

Answer 10

1. Origins of the first organised PAID POLICE ORGANISATIONS had a local focus.
2. FOR EXAMPLE - In London the BOW STREET RUNNERS provided one of the first models for the UNIFORMED POLICE (EMSLEY, 2001).
3. The new police of 1829 were established because propertied classes demanded security and protection for themselves, their property, and their possessions.
4. LATER - The core concern of the police was with LAW ENFORCEMENT and PEACE KEEPING throughout England (EMSLEY, 1996).

Question 11

WESTPHALIA SYSTEM

Answer 11

1. Westphalia system - was established following the 30 years war (1618-48).
2. This was because states wanted to maintain autonomy within their borders and therefore agreed not to cross the borders of other states.
3. The PEACE OF WESTPHALIA led to the origins of the modern system of sovereign states that came into existence by mutual recognition of each others unalienable jurisdictions.
4. The Westphalia states - began to recognise:

a) geographic boundaries
b) the right to govern their own sovereign spaces
c) see each other as independent entities

5. European states - now formed a pattern of independent and interdependent sovereignties.
6. States saw themselves as independent and reliant on each others cooperation to maintain their position.
7. These principles of ‘internal sovereignty’ were based on feudal, religious, and dynastic ideals rather than democratic ideals.
8. As a result - concepts of internationally agreed laws and diplomacy evolved.
9. In effect - neighbouring countries wanted internal security for their goods and people.
10. The Westphalia system formalised the rights of the states to maintain their borders.
11. So - this was a development in the way ‘international crime control’ evolved (ANDREAS AND NADELMANN, 2006).

Question 12

CRIMINALISATION OF ACTIVITIES - SLAVERY AND DRUGS.

DATELINE.

Answer 12

Brief dateline of ‘international cooperation’ on the prohibition of slavery and drugs. (ANDREAS AND NADELMANN, 2006).

SLAVERY:

1. 1833 - slave trade was abolished in Britain
2. 1848 - slave trade was abolished in France
3. 1904 - White slave trade - people trafficking for sex was abolished via ‘international agreement’ for the suppression of the white slave trade.

DRUGS:

1. 1961 - OPIATES and COCOA was criminalised by United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs
   (amended by 1972 protocol).

As international society became more orderly - benefit from stealing from one another gave way to to having the advantage of STABLE COMMERCIAL RELATIONS.

Thus - diplomacy and trade were becoming important and this was reflected in in certain acts being criminalised such as:

a) slavery
b) opium trade
c) piracy

was all prohibited.

Question 13

COOPERATION IN LAW ENFORCEMENT - TRANSNATIONAL POLICING.

Answer 13

1. At its simplest level - transnational policing is any sort of system or process that involves agents of state control cooperating across national borders.
2. This is not new and has a long history (ANDREAS AND NADELMANN, 2006).
3. Transnational policing is a response to:
   a) the needs and demands of integrated world economics
   b) increasing and changing opportunities for criminals.
4. EXAMPLES of such criminal activities include:

a) drugs and people trafficking
b) smuggling of counterfeit goods (alcohol and tobacco etc)
c) smuggling of ‘works of art’
d) illegally trapped ‘endangered species’
e) international fraud - vat fraud and money laundering.

5. At an individual level - this includes:

a) frauds via phishing online
b) postal invitations to get rich quick schemes
c) individual fraud.

6. NOTE - Some international crimes and transnational policing can be carried out without the perpetrator, victim, or law enforcers ;leaving their country of origin or jurisdiction.

Question 14

ORGANISED CRIME

Answer 14

1. The main goal of organised crime is to make money.
2. The UK Government claims that it is working to make the UK less attractive and lucrative to tight knit gangs that work across international borders.
3. According to the UK HOME OFFICE: Organised crime -

a) reaches into communities
b) ruins lives by driving crime
c) instils fear into communities.

4. ORGANISED CRIME manifests itself in:

a) drug addiction
b) sexual exploitation
c) gun crime
d) immigration crime
e) fraud
f) money laundering
g) internet-related crime.

5. OTHER THREATS INCLUDE: -

a) armed robbery
b) kidnap and extortion
c) vehicle crime
d) freight crime
e) cultural property crime
f) counterfeit currency
g) environmental crime.

Question 15

ORGANISED CRIME GROUPS (OCG’s).

Answer 15

1. Organised crime groups - are business that exist to make money.
2. They resort to extreme violence, intimidation, and corruption to protect their businesses.
3. These groups operate across global frontiers in tight-knit gangs.
4. They have in-depth knowledge of law enforcement methods.
5. They exploit sophisticated technologies to conceal their activities from the authorities.
6. The two most harmful and profitable enterprises controlled by organised crime groups are:

a) drugs trafficking
b) people smuggling.

7. FACTS:
   a) GLOBAL PROFITS - from people smuggling is $10 billion
   b) 280,000 problem drug users cause half of all crime
   c) every $1 spent on heroin generates about £4 of damage to the national economy.
   d) There are about 400 organised crime bosses in the UK with an amassed wealth of about £440 million.
8. Economic and social costs - of organised crime are estimated to be $20-40 billion per year (HOME OFFICE).

The aim of the UK GOVERNMENT is to:

a) protect country’s borders
b) prevent international gangs from entering the country
c) keep dangerous strangers out.

Question 16

HIGH AND LOW-LEVEL CRIMES.

and

HIGH and LOW POLICING.

Answer 16

1. Criminal activities are divided into LOW-LEVEL CRIMES such as evading customs duty

or

MEDIUM/HIGH-LEVEL CRIMES such as large international frauds.

2. Unpaid duty on goods at the border is dealt with by the LOW POLICE.

but

a terrorist threat or crimes that involve STATE SECURITY are often secret and dealt with by HIGH-LEVEL POLICING.

3. HIGH POLICING - Secret security services
4. LOW POLICING - visible, uniformed police
5. However- definitions of high and low policing are ‘blurred’ because of the increasing knowledge of the interconnections between various forms of organised crime.
6. SUCH INTERCONNECTIONS can be seen in:
   a) the funding of terrorism
   b) the acquisition of weapons through drug running
   c) links between drug trafficking routes and gangs.
   d) Organised crime groups - who engage in ‘COMMODITY HOPPING’ when certain items or activities become too dangerous to trade in whilst still avoiding law enforcement agencies.
   e) private funds from illegal activities can be channelled into legitimate businesses (LAUNDERED).

Question 17

DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN ‘INTERNATIONAL’ and ‘TRANSNATIONAL .

How ‘transnational policing and security’

differs from

‘International policing and security’.

Answer 17

1. The term transnational with regards to policing usually refers to a system of policing cooperation that crosses national boundaries.
2. INTERPOL is the most obvious example.
3. In terms of justice and policing - regulation and control are not simply about police cooperation across borders.
4. As there are distinctions to be made between transnational and international security.

INTERNATIONAL SECURITY: International policing involves:

a) actions and practices beyond the state
b) cooperation between countries, police forces, or officers.

EXAMPLE - International suggests a smaller number of connections are involved such as between France and England and policing the Channel Tunnel.

EXAMPLE - In the UK - The Serious Organised Crime Agency (SOCA) - is a state organised and state controlled body with international and transnational mandates.

TRANSNATIONAL or SUPRANATIONAL POLICING may involve:

a) wider, relatively autonomous networks and allegiances such as the EU.
b) notion of transnational has connotations of passing across a large number of countries.
c) Transnational policing and security suggests that more than one country may be involved and that the activities and investigations might reach over many jurisdictions and between continents.

EXAMPLE - This is exemplified by by reactions to 9/11 - this was more bout cutting across shared borders in a way that suggests a ‘GLOBAL POLICING’ that is not bound by physical frontiers/borders.

Question 18

INTERPOL (INTERNATIONAL POLICE).

Answer 18

1. The INTERPOL system provides a channel of communication between police forces
2. but - Interpol is not operational and it does nor arrest anyone.
3. Its primary role is the exchange if messages between police forces and judicial authorities of its member countries.
4. This is facilitated by a system of ‘COLOURED NOTICES’ (SHEPTYCKI, 2006).
   a) RED - international arrest warrants
   b) BLUE - information on a specific individual
   c) GREEN - information on suspected criminals for circulation
   d) YELLOW - missing persons information
   e) BLACK - the finding of unidentified bodies.
5. INTERPOL’s AIMS: Interpol has a wide-ranging remit that includes:

a) secure global police communication services
b) operational databases for police
c) operational police support services
d) police training and development.

6. In 1960’s - INTERPOL’s Paris headquarters was designated as the centre for intelligence gathering and dissemination.

Question 19

The Serious Organise Crime Agency (SOCA).

Answer 19

1. In the UK - The Serious Organised Crime Agency (SOCA) - is a state organised and state controlled body with international and transnational mandates.
2. It was created in 2006 to tackle the growing problem of international crime gangs.
3. SOCA - brings together the talents and experience of several different government agencies
4. and they all work together to take on drug trafficking and focusing on recovering criminal assets.
5. Legislative changes mean SOCA and other law enforcement agencies are now fighting organised crime more effectively.
6. SOCA and law enforcement agencies have the power to: (HOME OFFICE).
   a) seize profits from criminal activities/organisations
   b) intercept user logs and emails of suspected criminals
   c) impose conditions on convicted organised criminals post-release
   d) compel cooperation with investigators
   e) use initiatives such as sentence reductions to get criminals to inform on their associates

Question 20

HIGH POLICING

Answer 20

1. High policing - is thought to be the true nature of transnational border crossing policing, as enforcing law in a global context is dependent on gathering and sharing intelligence (BRODEUR, 2000).
2. HIGH POLICING - is rarely concerned with criminal prosecutions, instead they collect political intelligence and disrupt activities.
3. HIGH POLICE - are more likely to act outside of the law or extra-legally (outside the law) such as:

a) illegal break-ins
b) illegal letter openings
c) electronic surveillance
(ANDREAS and NADELMANN, 2006).

4. HIGH POLICING - ‘Investigative methods’ are more likely to be:

a) invasive
b) aggressive
c) manipulative (involving use of undercover agents).

5. HIGH POLICING FUNCTIONS - include the use of:
   a) high-cost/technical listening and detection equipment
   b) the policing of cyberspace.
   c) a terrorist threat or crimes that involve STATE SECURITY are often secret and dealt with by HIGH-LEVEL POLICING.
   d) high police are involved in espionage rings.
6. HIGH POLICING - often involves the Secret security services

Question 21

LOW POLICING

Answer 21

1. LOW POLICING - visible, uniformed police
2. Low policing - is categorised as the daily work of intercountry and interforce collaboration.
3. This often involves more traditional crime fighting as opposed to preventing or detecting security threats or terrorism
4. Low police - may be investigating drug-trafficking organisations.
5. On e manifestation of the low police in Europe is the ‘LIAISON OFFICER’ who manages the flow of information between respective agencies such as:

a) police
b) customs and immigration.

6. HOWEVER - There are concerns around the legitimacy and accountability at the low-police level:

such as -

a) the status of low-level officers working on the war on drugs has led to ambiguities such as a ‘blurring’ of duties/actions they carry out/and their role.

Question 22

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL POLICE STATE INTERACTION.

Answer 22

1. DEN BOER (1999) - argues that there are two forms of police state interaction.
2. These are Horizontal interactions and Vertical interactions.
3. HORIZONTAL INTERACTIONS - Local forces that share a border cooperate on pursuits that require crossing into others territory.
4. VERTICAL INTERACTIONS - operate at a more global level and often involve discussions and negotiations not just between individual nation states, but also with supranational bodies such as EU and UN.
5. The ‘SCHENGEN AGREEMENT’ - is an example of VERTICAL INTERACTIONS.

Question 23

THE ‘SCHENGEN AGREEMENT’

Answer 23

1. The ‘SCHENGEN AGREEMENT’ - is an example of VERTICAL INTERACTIONS.
2. In 1998 - 13 of 15 member states of the EU signed up to the SCHENGEN AGREEMENT.
3. This provides for:
   a) the abolition of border controls
   b) and lists compensatory measures for issues that require better security. Such as agreements about external border controls, police cooperation, and direct and automated information exchange.
4. UK and IRELAND were the only EU MEMBERS that had not signed up to the agreement because;
   a) they did not want to maintain their passport union
   b) they did not want to jeopardise their security situation.
5. HOWEVER - the ‘Treaty of Amsterdam’ made it possible via a special protocol for these 2 states to opt into various provisions of the SCHENGEN AGREEMENT, such as cross-border police competencies.
6. NORWAY and ICELAND have become associate members of the SCHENGEN GROUP which allows NORDIC COUNTRIES to maintain the NORDIC PASSPORT UNION.

Question 24

PROBLEMS FOR INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Answer 24

1. Considerable problems are faced by political parties and governments of member countries of the EU.
2. For instance - electorates of EU member countries may see moves to increase police cooperation across states as resulting in a ‘LOSS OF SOVEREIGNTY’.
3. POLITICAL PARTIES - may oppose the idea of what could be viewed as a ‘global police state’ even where the threat of terrorism is involved.
4. HIGH-LEVEL negotiated agreements - have to be implemented at local level, i.e at border crossing points.
5. HOWEVER - although officers may be familiar with policy, they also make individual decisions about who to stop, and which flights to search etc.
6. One of the problems of ‘international cooperation’ is that the laws and approaches to punishment might differ in different countries.
7. Even between bordering countries - state and governmental approaches might be in conflict. For instance:
   a) with regards to law-breaking
   b) or the extradition of some types of law-breakers

For instance - there are disagreements about whether perpetrators should be handed over to the country in which the alleged offence took place. i.e serious issues of terrorism or the the ‘intellectual freedom of speech’ offence by holocaust deniers.

8. Although many countries face the same threats and could benefit from cooperation and sharing of practice and information, there are ‘cultural’ and ‘language’ barriers to this informational exchange.

Question 25

POTENTIAL PROBLEMS/DISPUTES OF INTERNATIONAL EXTRADITION.

Answer 25

1. INTERNATIONAL EXTRADITION cases - illustrate the supposed cooperation and disputes that arise between countries at government and judicial levels.
2. This illustrates that there is no ‘one crime fits all’ approach to law enforcement and justice.
3. It could be argued this is because each country has evolved its own set of rules/laws/procedures.
4. Also - some countries have good reasons for sensitivities and beliefs about certain actions or people.
5. REMEMBER - Laws and rules differ between countries and cultures.

Question 26

POST-MODERN POLICING - ARE THE GLOBAL COPS COMING?

Answer 26

1. The Idea of POST-MODERN POLICE suggests that:
   a) something beyond the state
   b) cutting across traditional boundaries
   c) and beyond normal controls of legitimacy and accountability.
2. This is because post-modern policing implies something beyond the remit of physical policing, for instance:
   a) moving into the virtual world of ‘cybercrime’ to deal with virtual offences such as international currency fraud.
3. It implies post-modern police will be:

a) all-seeing
b) all-encompassing
c) and beyond the international, transnational, and supranational.

4. In effect - post-modern policing has no boundaries.
5. SCHEPTYCKI (1998) - suggests that the ‘global cops cometh’ and suggests the arrival of post-modern policing.
6. HOWEVER - It is argued that the state holds a monopoly on violence, as despite there being numerous policing providers such as private firms, there are some functions only the state can carry out, the primary one being ‘COERCIVE LEGITIMATE USE OF FORCE’.
7. Thus the state holds a monopoly on violence.

Question 27

TRANSNATIONAL POLICING DEVELOPMENTS ARE COMPLICATED BY ‘PRIVATE MILITARY COMPANIES’

Answer 27

1. Work on transnational policing developments is complicated by post-9/11 war on terrorism.
2. There is an increasing governmental role being played by ‘private military companies’ in international security coalitions.
3. For instance - the strategic positioning of PRIVATE MILITARY CORPORATIONS (PMC’s) in the reconstruction of IRAQ.

FOR EXAMPLE - In 2005 - 100 PMC’s with 30,000 personnel were operating in IRAQ offering protection to government ministries, oil pipelines, building sites, and power stations etc.

4. East Europeans are driving well-paid Brits out of work on the front-line of IRAQ and AFGHANISTAN.
5. Jobs are offered to cheaper eastern- European military etc.
6. Ex-British soldiers used to earn 100,000 a year providing private security in Iraq and Afghanistan, but this is now reduced significantly.

Question 28

WORLD SECURITY - HOMELAND SECURITY (US).

Answer 28

1. World security is a major issue.
2. President Obama spoke of the US HOMELAND SECURITY as being a strategy for securing the homeland against 21st century threats.
3. HOMELAND SECURITY is focused on:

a) preventing terrorist attacks
b) natural disasters
c) accidental disasters
d) preparing and planning for emergencies
e) response and recovery capabilities.

4. To defeat terrorism worldwide: the objectives are to -

a) find and disrupt AL QAEDA
b) find new capabilities to defeat terrorists
c) prepare military to met 21st century threats
d) win the battle if the ideas
e) restore american influence and restore US values.

Question 29

INTERNATIONAL

Answer 29

INTERNATIONAL:

1. This used to be the term used to describe most interactions between different countries’ national police and security services.
2. For instance, the name ‘Interpol’, chosen in 1946, is a contraction of the words ‘international’ and ‘police’. ‘International’ implies an earlier age in which two countries, perhaps with shared borders, might cooperate in order to prevent cross-border crime; it also implies a sharing of purpose between governments or states.

Question 30

TRANSNATIONAL

Answer 30

TRANSNATIONAL:

1. Greater use was made of this term from the 1990’s onward so as to broaden the idea of ‘international’ and to suggest that organised crime, and the policing and security that would follow, could cut across more than the shared boundary of two nation-states.
2. More recently, with increased awareness of:
   a) cybercrime
   b) money-laundering
   c) people trafficking and so on,
3. ‘transnational’ is also used to suggest that policing and security transcends physical borders or customs installations.
4. Cross-border police cooperation is increasingly necessary as a result of cross-border crime.

Question 31

SUPRANATIONAL

Answer 31

SUPRANATIONAL:

1. This is used to suggest the operation of policing and security services at a level above both the international or the transnational – as the prefix ‘supra-’ implies – in the sense of power and processes.
2. For example, Neil Walker (2002, p. 307) argues that policing authority in Europe has been moving ‘from the state towards the supranational EU’.
3. In considering international, transnational and supranational policing:

Westmarland also looks at the ‘blurring’ of internal and external security mandates, considering whether this means the coming of ‘global cops’ and the end of nation-state policing.

If it does, she asks, what are the implications for legitimacy, accountability and responsibility?