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Psych 1021 > Chapter 6- Memory > Flashcards

Chapter 6- Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Case of H.M

A
  • Little boy H.M was hit by bicycle, resulted in seizures.
  • to fix seizures, did brain surgery and removed temporal lobe on both sides
  • resulted in loss of hippocampus and amygdala
  • memories prior to surgery remained, but couldn’t form new ones
  • unable to form memories of events in life, but could learn new motor skills
  • allowed people to understand that different parts of the brain have different functions
  • help psychologists see the distinction between implicit and explicit memory
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2
Q

H.M and star

A
  • had to trace a star while looking at its outline in mirror
  • he had no recollection of doing it even though he was trained for days
  • but brain remembered it because he got better
  • shows that memory can operate outside of conscious awareness
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3
Q

Memory

A

the ability to store and use information

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4
Q

Retrospective Memory

A

Memory for the past

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5
Q

Prospective Memory

A

Memory for the future
prefrontal lobes involved
-ex- mental shopping list

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6
Q

What are the two types of memory

A

Explicit and Implicit

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7
Q

Explicit Memory

A

-the conscious recall of facts and events
-declarative memory
-requires awareness
“conscious”

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8
Q

Implicit Memory

A

-when we remember something but don’t consciously know that we remember it
-made up of knowledge from previous experience
-non-declarative memory
-does not require awareness
-“unconscious”
ex-reading

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9
Q

What are the three memory stores

A

1- Sensory memory
2- Short-term memory
3- Long term memory

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10
Q

Sensory memory

A

the part of memory that holds sensory info for a very brief period of time, a few seconds or less
-memory you get when you’re exposed to a stimulus
-large capacity, short duration
ex- visual and auditory memory

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11
Q

Iconic Memory

A

a brief record of a visual scene

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12
Q

Echoic memory

A

short term retention of sounds

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13
Q

Testing Iconic and echoic memory

A
  • is difficult because bringing attention to it increases the chances of it being rehearsed and stored in short term memory
  • letters flash, followed by a delay and a tone that represents a different row for the participant to recall
  • short delays-> perfect recall
  • delay more than 300 milliseconds-> accuracy drops
  • suggests we have the ability to hold an entire scene in mind, but only for a few seconds
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14
Q

What store (Iconic or echoic) has a longer duration

A

echoic
-significantly longer by seconds

-test:
listen to 2 different sounds and perform a test that requires careful listening to one.
“ignored” sounds cannot be processed by short term memory stores-> sensory memory
delay between ignored sounds and recall is greater than 5 seconds, memory declines dramatically

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15
Q

Short term memory

A
  • temporarily stores limited amount of information before it is either transferred to long-term storage or forgotten
  • info stays for 2-30 seconds
  • longer than sensory memory
  • not permanent
  • emphasizes duration
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16
Q

Long term memory

A
  • the part of memory that has the capacity to store a lot of information for as little as 30 seconds to as long as a lifetime
  • where memories of first pet, how to read are
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17
Q

Three stage model of Memory

A

classification of the three memory stores based on how long the memories last

  • explains explicit memory
  • fails to explain long term implicit memory and events after encoding into long term memory
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18
Q

Explain the three stage model of memory

A
  • memory formation starts with sensory input
  • if you don’t pay attention to it, sensation vanishes and info is lost
  • Pay attention to it-> sensation becomes short term memory
  • Once sensation enters short term memory, it either transitions to long term memory in a short period of time or it disappears
  • if we rehearse the information actively, the sensation becomes long term memory
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19
Q

Rehearsal

A

the process of repeatedly reciting material so it enters long term memory

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20
Q

Encoding

A

the process by which we attend to, take in, and process new information

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21
Q

Retrieval

A

the recovery of information stored in memory

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22
Q

Short term memory capacity

A

the number of items that can be held in short-term memory

  • between 4 and 9 units of info
  • everyones is different
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23
Q

Magic number 7 +/- 2

A

the average memory capacity and degree of variation between individuals

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24
Q

Experiment that demonstrates short term memory is so short

A
  • given list of 3 letter combos and asked to recall after different delay periods
  • prevented from rehearsal
  • delay bigger than 6 seconds, recall less than half of the items
  • delay of 18 seconds, 10% of items were correctly recalled
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25
Q

Working memory

A
  • short term memory + attention
  • part of memory required to attend to and solve a problem
  • emphasizes the function of short term memory
  • limited capacity, short duration
  • thinking in the moment
  • can be transferred to long term memory if rehearsed ->otherwise lost
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26
Q

Chunking

A

the process of breaking down a list of items to be remembered into smaller set of meaningful units

  • best way to overcome limitations of working memory
  • 09112001
  • 09-112-001
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27
Q

What does the three stage memory model fail to do

A

fails to explain how we are able to carry out complicated tasks

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28
Q

Testing the limits of working memory

A
  • participants complete 2 tasks simultaneously: a primary memory task (memorizing lists) and a secondary task (rehearsing sequence of #’s)
  • found only modest memory errors when heavily loaded with cognitive demands
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29
Q

Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory

A

Working memory is made up of three temporary storage systems:
1) Phonological- sounds and language
2) Visuospatial- images and spatial relations
3) Episodic Buffer- connects the two storage systems
-interacts with long term memory
-provides temporary storage for specific events
these three stores are managed by the central executive

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30
Q

Central executive

A
  • the attentional control system that manages the three stores
  • focuses and shifts attention
  • decides which sensations deserve our attention and which ones don’t
  • also communicates with long-term memory
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31
Q

What are the three processes that Baddeley proposed working memory operates through

A

1) ATTENDING to a stimulus (memory + attention), carried out by central executive that focuses on a specific aspect of a stimulus
2) STORING info about the stimulus
3) REHEARSING the stored info

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32
Q

Describe Baddeleys Model

A
  • Once info is taken in and we attend to it, it is sent to a temporary store:
  • > the phonological loop if it is sound or language. Assists the central executive by providing 30 seconds of storage for limited words/digits
  • > the visuospatial sketch pad if it is visual or spatial info. Briefly provides storage for images (3 or 4).
  • > the episodic buffer if it is a specific event or experience that involves multi sensory memory. Critical for memory that will become long term memory

Information that enters either of these memory stores lasts only seconds before it fades- unless we attend to it and process it deeply

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33
Q

Operation of phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

A

The phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad operate independently

  • working on a verbal task does not affect performance of visual task at the same time
  • brain damage patient studies show that they loop and sketch pad use different parts of the brain since one system can be impaired while the other is unaffected
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34
Q

How can we use working memory

A
  • can mean attending to sensory info and forming a long term memory
  • can mean retrieving prior long term memories
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35
Q

The Serial Position Effect

A

when learning a list, people are better at recalling things at the beginning and end, forgetting the middle

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36
Q

Primacy effect

A

remembering things at the beginning of the list
-items in long term memory

explanation: items at beginning of list are quickly rehearsed and transferred to long term memory

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37
Q

Recency effect

A

remembering things at the end of the list
-items in working memory

explanation: items at the end are still being held in working memory-> easily accessible
- if rehearsal is prevented after all words have been presented, performance for last two words on list is no better than that for middle. recall for items at beginning of list unaffected

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38
Q

Why can’t you remember the things in the middle

A

Items in the middle:

  • haven’t been moved to long term memory -> less likely to be recalled
  • cant be rehearsed as more items added to the list
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39
Q

Neuroimaging data

A

shows that early and late items activate different brain regions during recall
-suggests that they recruit different processes

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40
Q

Long- term memory

A

any information that is stored for at least 30-40 seconds and up to a lifetime

  • unlimited capacity
  • different types
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41
Q

Why doesn’t the 3 stage model explain long-term implicit memories

A
  • places emphasis on two processes that are not engaged in implicit tasks
  • no attention or rehearsal
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42
Q

Tests for Long term memory

A

Explicit and implicit tests

-if done properly, people don’t know they’re performing a memory task

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43
Q

Explicit tests

A

participants asked to REMEMBER something

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44
Q

Implicit tests

A

participants asked to DO something

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45
Q

Examples of Implicit memory

A

Procedural memory and priming

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46
Q

Procedural memory

A

knowledge we hold for any behaviour or physical skill we learn

  • occurs in striatum
  • ex: ride a bike, drive a car, tie a shoe
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47
Q

Priming

A

occurs when recall is improved by earlier exposure to same or similar stimuli
-occurs in cortex

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48
Q

One lab of priming

A

amnesia group compared to people without memory problems on a word learning task

  • when asked to recall words, people in amnesia group had less recall
  • when given first 3 letters of the word, the amnesia group performed as well as normal group
  • amnesia group had no conscious recollection of having seen the words before

*people with long term memory damage show a remarkable ability to recall words if they have been primed**

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49
Q

Two kinds of explicit memory

A

1) Semantic memory

2) Episodic memory

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50
Q

Semantic memory

A

memory for facts and knowledge
ex-what we learn in school
general knowledge

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51
Q

Episodic memory

A

memory that recalls experiences we’ve had

-more personal

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52
Q

Stages of long term memory

A

1) Encoding
2) Consolidation
3) Storage
4) Retrieval

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53
Q

Encoding

A
  • 1st stage in long term memory
  • attention is required
  • different in implicit and explicit memory
explicit tasks (free recall) : visual images are encoded more easily than verbal descriptions
implicit tasks (priming) : verbal descriptions encoded more easily than visual images
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54
Q

mnemonic device

A

-helps people remember information

ex- rhyming, chunking, rehearsal, imagery, acronyms

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55
Q

mnemonist

A

someone who displays extraordinary memory skills

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56
Q

Dual encoding theory

A

visual and verbal information are processed and stored independently by the brain

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57
Q

Consolidation

A
  • the 2nd stage of long term memory
  • process of establishing/solidifying a memory
  • resistant to distraction, interference, and decay
  • sleep important
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58
Q

Storage

A
  • the 3rd stage in long term memory

- retention of memory over time

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59
Q

Retrieval

A
  • last stage in long term memory
  • requires working memory
  • remembering
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60
Q

What are the three ways we organize and store memories

A

1) Hierarchies
2) Schemas
3) Associative Network

61
Q

Hierarchies

A

a way of organizing related pieces of information from the most general they have in common to the most specific
ex- song titles
-logical hierarchy improved recall compared to illogicak

62
Q

Schemas

A

mental frameworks

  • based upon experiences with people, objects, or events
  • act as a filter
63
Q

Schema study at bar

A

gave memory test for bar beverages to experienced waiters, beginner waiters, and non waiters
-experienced waiters did the best because they had a richer schema

64
Q

What do hierarchies and schema bring?

A

they bring order and organization

65
Q

association

A

binds concepts together

  • linked by degree of closeness
  • links between nodes
66
Q

Associative network

A

a chain of associations between related concepts

67
Q

node

A

each concept in a network

68
Q

When people think of a concept and its node is activated

A

they are more likely to make an association to a nearby concept or node

ex- fire engine, has associations to vehicles and colours

69
Q

Neural networks

A

computer models that imitate the way neutrons communicate with each other

  • have information processing nodes, aren’t single concepts (like colour or vehicle)
  • the more nodes in a neural network communicate with each other, the stronger the link between nodes
70
Q

What are the two kinds of encoding processing

A

1) Automatic processing

2) Effortful processing

71
Q

Automatic processing

A

encoding of information with little effort or conscious attention
ex- episodic memory, implicit memories, priming, remembering what you ate for breakfast

72
Q

Effortful processing

A

encoding of info that occurs with careful attention and conscious effort
-involves rehearsal of info

73
Q

Effect of advancing age on encoding processing

A

Advancing age lessens recall for events and experiences that require effortful processing but not automatic processing

74
Q

What are the levels of processing

A

1) Structural processing
2) Phonemic processing
3) Semantic processing

*the more deeply you encode information, the better recall

75
Q

Structural processing

A

shallowest level of processing
-worst recall
-to study, researchers say focus on structure of word
ex- is it capitalized

76
Q

Phonemic processing

A

mid-level processing
-mid recall
-researchers say focus on sound of word
ex- does it rhyme with ___

77
Q

Semantic processing

A

deepest level of processing
-best recall
-researchers say focus on meaning of word
ex- would the word fit the sentence ___??

78
Q

Best recall

A

encoded deeply

79
Q

Worst recall

A

not encoded deeply

80
Q

Study that studied recall by repeating words once and twice

A
  • people presented word list twice, recall is stronger
  • not always the case for implicit memory tests

the depth of encoding does not enhance all types of memory

Explicit tasks that require effortful processing-> more deeply its encoded-> the better you will remember it

81
Q

Encoding specificity principle

A

the idea that memory is the strongest when the conditions at retrieval match those during encoding
-similarity of encoding and retrieval environments -> better recall

82
Q

Transfer- appropriate processing

A

recall is best if the cognitive processes used during encoding are the same as those for retrieval
-focuses less on memory environment, more on similarity of thought processes

83
Q

Both theories have what in common?

A

Encoding specificity principle and transfer appropriate processing both predict the more similar the conditions during encoding and retrieval, the better the retrieval will be

84
Q

Study when people shown pics or words of common objects, asked to categorize them

A

recognition was better for the words they previously saw as words, compared to words they previously saw as pictures

85
Q

Context- dependent memory

A

support of encoding by the context in which information is presented

  • used scuba divers to learn lists of words underwater or on land and tested their recall in different environments
  • (water/water) (land/land) (land/water) (water/land)
  • highest recall was when environments were matched

studying environments should match testing environments

86
Q

Memories of our personal experiences are processed…

A

automatically

87
Q

Emotional memories are ____ to recall than factual ones. Why?

A

easier

emotions help us encode and retrieve memories without effortful processing

88
Q

Study on Emotional memory:
9 women, showed pics with emotional content and neutral content
a year later, they saw the same pictures, both times, brains were scanned

A
  • year later, women showed better recognition of the pictures with emotional content than neutral content
  • scans showed enhanced brain activity when saw emotional, remembered items

same brain regions were active during encoding and retrieval of emotional stimuli -> emotion helped both stages of memory process

89
Q

autobiographical memory

A

memories from lifespan

-positive bias in recall, more likely to recall positive memories over negative

90
Q

Negative emotions can result in ____

A

memory impairement

  • refugees who experiences emotional stress have impaired recall of episodic memories
  • cancer survivors show impaired semantic memory
91
Q

PTSD

A

when a person who has experienced an extremely traumatic event and relives the event over and over again
-prior stressful experience increases chances of developing it

92
Q

stressful emotions may ____ the encoding of information and ______ the retrieval of emotional memories

A

enhance

impair

93
Q

Flashbulb memory

A

a vivid memory for an emotional event

  • unexpected and important
  • caused by strong emotion
  • tend to be associated with negative events
  • not as accurate as they seem
  • “remembered it like it happened yesterday”
94
Q

Study: victims of 9/11 were tested after one week, 11 months and 35 months after attack

A
  • despite high ratings of confidence for their memories, victims did not give consistent ratings across different time
  • the recollection of the details itself (non emotional content) were recalled more consistently than the emotions themselves
95
Q

Forgetting

A

-the weakening or loss of memories over time

96
Q

Interference

A

-disruption of memory because other information competes with the information we are trying to recall

97
Q

What are the different types of interference

A

Retroactive interference and Proactive interference

98
Q

Retroactive interference

A

when new experiences or information causes people to forget previously learned experiences/information
ex- recall of crime by eyewitness, even if testimony is given only minutes after event, it will still be distorted by events that happened after crime

99
Q

Proactive interference

A

when previously learned information interferes with the learning of new information

  • learning something that contradicts what you have been taught your whole life
  • serial position effect
100
Q

What are the two categories that illustrate the imperfections of memory

A

1) Errors of Omission

2) Errors of Commission

101
Q

Errors of Omission

A

Transcience
Absent-mindedness
Blocking

all forms of forgetfulness

102
Q

Transcience

A

most common type of forgetting
-the loss of information over time
-also called decay
“forgetting curve”- each passing day, remember a little less, seeing list 3 times as opposed to once helped recall a little

103
Q

Absent mindedness

A
  • results from not paying attention
  • happens when we multitask
  • increases with age, not a big problem until 70’s

-cant remember where keys are, look for 10 min, they’re in the door

104
Q

Blocking

A

the inability to retrieve some information once it is stored

  • ex- forgetting a name or #
  • on the “tip of the tongue”- can almost recall it but not quite
105
Q

Repression

A

another form of blocking
-retrieval of memories that have been encoded and stored is actively inhibited
ex- traumatic memories

106
Q

Errors of Commission

A
  • Misattribution
  • Consistency bias
  • Persistence
  • Suggestibility
107
Q

Misattribution

A

assigning memory to the wrong source

ex: cryptomnesia- when a person accidentally plagiarizes someone else’s ideas
- unconscious

108
Q

Consistency bias

A

selective recall of past events to fit our current beliefs

  • when we rewrite our memories based on what we now know and believe
  • revisions tells us more about who we are now

ex- people asked to recall political views 10 years ago, more consistent with current beliefs

109
Q

Persistence

A

the repeated recall of pleasant or unpleasant experiences even when we actively try to forget them

  • memories created with strongly felt emotions
  • extreme form is PTSD
110
Q

Suggestibility

A
  • when memories are altered in our minds based on leading questions, comments, or suggestions by someone else
  • unconscious
  • big part in law, evidence from eye witnesses can be altered by how police word their questions
111
Q

Study: people watched vid of staged car accident.

A

Estimated higher speeds when asked “How fast when they SMASHED into each other” rather then “how fast when they HIT each other”

1st question- more likely to report seeing broken glass

112
Q

False memories

A

memories for events that never happened but were suggested by someone or something

  • not a lie
  • person develops actual memory based on false information
  • vulnerability to false memories even stronger when using emotionally negative images compared to positive ones
  • visual imagery boosts likelihood of false memories
113
Q

Eye witness memory

A
  • not very accurate

- susceptible to suggestion in the interval between experience and recall

114
Q

Study: watched vid and answered questions. some contained direct misleading suggestions about the event they witnessed, ex- what they were wearing
after answering questions, asked to recall specific details about the event they saw

A

-participants likely to incorporate the misleading suggestions (wrong clothing) into memory and elaborate

115
Q

Misinformation effect

A

alteration of memory by misleading information presented between encoding and recall

116
Q

Study: investigated recall of hospital emergency room visits by children of different ages

A
  • young children (2-4) who were highly distressed had poorer recall about details of their injury compared to older children
  • effect was not found if children had low levels of stress regarding their experience
117
Q

recovered memory

A

a memory that was encoded and stored, but not retrieved for a long period of time until later events bring it back to consciousness

  • controversial
  • sometimes triggered when under care by psychotherapist
  • not clear whether memory came on its own or psychotherapist gave unprofessional suggestions that forced them to recover it
118
Q

Biology

A

foundation of all learning and memory

119
Q

Hebb’s Theory of Memory storage in neurons

A

1) When one neuron repeatedly fires and excites another neuron, there is a temporary memory trace across the synapse between the neurons for a short time
2) If this memory trace persists, it is followed by a permanent change in the receiving neuron, the excitatory neuron, or both -> strengthens the synaptic connection

  • use it or lose it
  • neurons that fire together, wire together

-repeated stimulation of a group of neutrons leads to the formation of cell assemblies

120
Q

cell assemblies

A

networks of neurons that persist even after stimulation has stopped

121
Q

Possible mechanisms of Hebb’s theory

A
  • neurogensis
  • formation of new synapses
  • rearrangement of synaptic inputs
  • dendrite growth
  • long term potentiation (LTP)
122
Q

Long Term Potentiation (LTP)

A

strengthening of a synaptic connection when one neutron repeatedly fires and excites another neutron

  • occurs in brain regions involved in memory
  • blocking glutamate prevents LTP and interferes with memory
123
Q

Eric Kandel and his sea slugs

A
  • sea slugs have few neurons
  • shock sea slug-> defensive response for 10 min
  • shock 4 or 5 times in succession -> exhibited same defensive response days later
  • sea slug created long term memory on how to react to a shock

conversion from short term to long term memory storage requires spaced repetition

124
Q

Explain the effect of repeated stimulation of a neuron

A
  • repeated stimulation of neuron sends signals to nucleus of cell, where DNA is
  • these signals trigger production of CREB, a protein that turns on genes responsible for the development of new synapses
  • repetition brings growth of new synapses, stabilizes new memory
125
Q

Sensory info travels to the _______ and then gets directed to specific ______

A

thalamus

cortical areas

126
Q

Vision

A

transferred to occipital lobe

127
Q

Hearing

A

temporal lobe

128
Q

Touch

A

parietal lobe

129
Q

Taste

A

Frontal and temporal lobes

130
Q

Smell

A

can bypass the thalamus, go straight to olfactory bulb

131
Q

Working memory ______ localized to one area

A

is not

132
Q

Prefrontal cortex

A
  • activated in working memory
  • determines what info in the environment is worthy of attention
  • directs attention
133
Q

Hippocampus

A
  • activated by encoding stage of memory
  • where memory is consolidated, may take hours, days, weeks
  • where conversion of a short term to long term memory occurs
134
Q

Specific cortical areas, specific tasks

A

Auditory info -> processed and rehearsed by phonological loop from prefrontal cortex to the language comprehension centre in rear left parietal lobe

Visual info -> visuospatial sketch pad from prefrontal cortex to temporal lobes-> occipital lobes

Temporal lobe is critical in the ability to encode explicit, episodic memories long term

135
Q

Explicit long term memories

A

-stored in cortex where original sensation was processed

136
Q

Implicit long term memories

A

-stored in subcortex -> striatum (part of basal ganglia) amygdala and cerebellum

137
Q

Tasks that require memory for precise movements

A

involve cerebellum

- cerebellum of piano player is bigger than that of someone who doesn’t play

138
Q

Emotion acts as a ________

A

memory booster

139
Q

People with damage to amygdala

A

do not display memory boost from emotions

  • do not recall emotional events better than non-emotional events
  • amygdala impairs memories for overall feelings, not for details
  • emotion is gone, details is still there
140
Q

Amygdala gives _______

A

emotional significance to events

  • especially negative and fearful ones
  • phobias
141
Q

Emotion ____ enhance memory

A

can
-amygdala blocks enhanced memory for emotional details
amygdala activation correlated with emotionally distressing videos

142
Q

amnesia

A

-when people forget due to injury or disease

143
Q

What are the two types of amnesia

A

1) Anterograde
2) Retrograde
can have one or the other, rarely have both -> if you do serious brain damage

144
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

-the inability to remember events and experiences that occur AFTER an injury or onset of disease

145
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

the inability to remember events or experiences that happened BEFORE the injury or onset of disease

146
Q

Alzheimers disease

A

can’t remember new info initially, eventually forget past. get to a point where you don’t remember anything, can’t form new memories
-both transience and absent mindedness are evident

147
Q

Cause of alzheimers

A

abnormal accumulation of protein called beta-amyloid, which is toxic to neutrons that contain acetylcholine.

These cholinergic neurons send their axon terminals to memory regions such as hippocampus and cortex

148
Q

Korsakoff syndrome

A
  • drink a lot of alcohol-> suppress B vitamins (B for brain)
  • All B vitamins essential to nervous system
  • when you drink you flush out thiamine (B1)
  • do this chronically, you have chronic depletion of b vitamins
  • B1 Thiamine causes a form of dementia- alcohol dementia

Psych 1021 (5 decks)

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