Chapter 6: Identity and Personality Flashcards
Our awareness of ourselves as distinct from others and our own internal list of answers to the question Who am I? form our ______________.
Self-concept
Many of the ways in which we define ourselves fall under the classification of a ______________; that is, a self-given label that carries with it a set of qualities.
Self-schema
Social scientists define ____________ as the individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong.
Identity
______________ describes people’s appraisals of themselves on scales of masculinity and femininity.
Gender identity
______________ is defined as the state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine.
Androgyny
Those who achieved low scores on scales of both masculinity and femininity are referred to as _________________.
Undifferentiated
The theory of ____________ holds that key components of gender identity are transmitted through cultural and societal means.
Gender schema
_____________ refers to the part of one’s identity associated with membership in a particular racial/ethnic group.
Ethnic identity
While ethnicity is largely an identity into which we are born, ________________ is based on political borders.
Nationality
It is believed that our identities are organized according to a _________________, such that we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment.
Hierarchy of salience
________________ theory maintains that each of us has three selves and that perceived differences between these selves lead to negative feelings.
Self-discrepancy theory
Our self-concept makes up our _____________, the way we see ourselves as we currently are.
Actual self
Our ____________ is the person we would like to be.
Ideal sel
Our ____________ is our representation of the way others think we should be.
Ought self
The closer the three selves (actual, ideal, and ought self) are to one another, the higher our ______________ for self-worth will be.
Self-esteem
While self-esteem is the measure of how we feel about ourselves, _______________ is our belief in our ability too succeed.
Self-efficacy
_______________ can lead us to take on tasks for which we are not ready, leading to frustration, humiliation, or sometimes even personal injury.
Overconfidence
Self-efficacy can also be depressed; an individual can develop a perceived lack of control over the outcome of a situation, a phenomenon called __________________.
Learned helplessness
_______________ refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives.
Locus of control
People with an _____________ locus of control view themselves as controlling their own fate, whereas those with an _____________ locus of control feel that the events in their lives are caused by luck or outside influences.
- Internal locus of control
- External locus of control
Sigmund Freud made the assertion that far from lying dormant until puberty, the ____________ (sex drive) is present at birth.
Libido
_____________ occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development.
Fixation
In response to the anxiety caused by fixation, the child forms a personality pattern based on that particular stage, which persists into adulthood as a functional mental disorder known as a ______________.
Neurosis
Freud’s stages of psychosexual development:
___________: Libidinal energy entered on the mouth; fixation can lead to excessive dependency.
Oral
Freud’s stages of psychosexual development:
__________: Toilet training occurs during this time; fixation can lead to excessive orderliness for messiness.
Anal
Freud’s stages of psychosexual development:
___________: Oedipal or Electra conflict is resolved during this stage.
Phallic
Freud’s stages of psychosexual development:
____________: Libido is largely sublimated during this stage.
Latency
Freud’s stages of psychosexual development:
____________: Begins at puberty; in theory, if previous stages have been successfully resolved, the person will enter into heterosexual relationships.
Genital
During the __________ stage, gratification is obtained primarily through putting objects into the mouth, biting, and sucking. Libidinal energy is centered on the mouth.
Oral stage
During the __________ stage, from 1 to 3 years, the libido is centered on the anus and gratification is gained through the elimination and retention of waste materials. Toilet training occurs during this stage.
Anal stage
Fixation during the __________ stage would be expected to exhibit excessive dependency.
Oral stage
Fixation during the __________ stage would lead to either excessive orderliness or sloppiness in the adult.
Anal stage
The ____________ stage, sometimes known as the _____________ stage, enters on resolution of the Oedipal conflict for male children or the analogous Electra conflict for female children.
- Phallic stage
- Oedipal stage
In Freud’s view, the male child envies his father’s intimate relationship with his mother and fears castration at his father’s hands. He wishes to eliminate his father and possess his mother, but the child feels guilty about these wishes. To successfully resolve the conflict, he deals with his guilty feelings by identifying with his father, establishing his sexual identity, and internalizing moral values. This conflict is called _________________.
Oedipal conflict in male children
Once the libido is sublimated, the child has entered the _______________, which lasts until puberty is reached.
Latency stage
For Freud, the final stage of psychosexual development is the ___________ stage, beginning in puberty and lasting through adulthood.
Genital stage
According to Freud, if prior development has proceeded correctly, the person should enter into healthy heterosexual relationships at ___________ stage. If sexual traumas of childhood d have not been resolved, such behaviours as homosexuality, asexuality, or fetishism may result.
Genital stage
The _______________________________ theorizes that personality development is driven by the successful resolution of a series of social and emotional conflicts.
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
According to Erikson, the first social and emotional conflict is that of _________________, which occurs during the first year of life.
Trust vs. Mistrust
According to Erikson, the second conflict is _____________ vs. _______________ (1 to 3 years), where children begin to explore their surroundings and develop their interests.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
According to Erikson, the third conflict confronted is ______________ vs. ____________ (3 to 6 years), in which children learn basic cause and effect principles in physics, and starting and finish out tasks for a purpose.
Initiative vs. Guilt
According to Erikson, the fourth conflict is ______________ vs. _______________ (6 to 12 years), where pre-adolescents are becoming aware of themselves as individuals.
Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 12 years)
According to Erikson, during adolescence (12 to 20 years), individuals experience _____________ vs _______________.
Identity vs. Role confusion
According to Erikson, during the __________________ conflict, adolescents explore their independence to determine who they are and what their purpose is in society.
Identity vs. Role confusion
According to Erikson, the main crisis of young adulthood (20 to 40 years) is ______________ vs. ______________, where people focus on creating long-lasting bonds with others.
Intimacy vs. Isolation
According to Erikson, the conflict of middle age (40 to 65 years) is ________________ vs. ______________, where the focus is on advancing present and future society.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
According to Erikson, old age 9above 65 years) brings about the crisis of ______________ vs. _____________, where the focus tends to be reflective and contemplative.
Integrity vs. Despair
The ____________________ focuses not on urges or on resolving conflicts, but rather on development of moral thinking.
Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning
__________________ that is a stage in Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, is typical of preadolescent thinking and places an emphasis on the consequences of the moral choices.
Preconventional morality
Preconventional morality:
Age: _______________
Stages: _______________ and _______________
- Preadolescence
- Obedience
- Self-interest
Stage one (____________) that is part of the preconventional morality phase, is concerned with avoiding punishment (If I steal the drug, I’ll go to jail).
Obedience
Stage 2 (______________) that is part of the preconventional morality stage, is about gaining rewards (I need to save my wife because I want to spend more of my life with her).
Self-interest
Stage 2 (self-interest) that is part of the preconventional morality stage, is often called the _____________________ stage because it is based on the concepts of reciprocity and sharing: I’ll scratch your back, you scratch mine.
Instrumental relativist stage
___________________ that is a stage in Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, which begins to develop in early adolescence when individuals begin to see themselves in terms of their relationships to others.
Conventional morality
Stage 3 (______________) that is part of the conventional morality stage, places emphasis on the “nice person” orientation in which an individual seeks the approval of others (I should not steal the drug because stealing is wrong).
Conformity
Stage 4 (______________) that is part of the conventional morality stage, maintains the social order in the highest regard (If everyone stole things they couldn’t afford, people who produce those items would not be able to continue their business).
Law and order
The ____________________ stage, that is a stage in Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, which describes a level of reasoning that Kohlberg claimed not everyone was capable of and is based on social mores, which may conflict with laws.
Postconventional morality
Stage 5 (_______________) that is part of the postconventional morality stage, views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good, with reasoning focused on individual rights (Everyone has a right to live; businesses have a right to profit from their products).
Social contract
Stage 6 (___________________) that is part of the post conventional morality stage, reasons that decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles (It is wrong forgone person to hold another’s life for ransom).
Universal human ethics
Lev Vygotsky is known for his concept of the ____________________, referring to those skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development.
Zone of proximal development
The ability to sense how another’s mind works - for example, understanding how a friend is interpreting a story while you tell it - is referred to as _________________.
Theory of mind
Our understanding of how others see us, which relies on perceiving a reflection of ourselves based on the words and actions of others, is appropriately called the ___________________.
Looking-glass self
A related concept to the looking-glass self is a ________________, the group that we use as a standard to evaluate ourselves.
Reference group
______________, while similar to identity, describes the set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviours that are characteristic of an individual across time and location.
Personality
The _________________ or ______________________ contain some of the most widely varying perspectives on behaviour, but they all have in common the assumption of unconscious internal states that motivate the the overt actions of individuals and determine personality.
- Psychoanalytic theories of personality
- Psychodynamic theories of personality
Freud’s contribution to the study of personality (the psychoanalytical perspective) was his structural model, which involved three major entities: the __________, ___________, and _______________.
- Id
- Ego
- Superego
The ________ consists of all the basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce.
Id
The id functions according to the _________________, in which the aim is to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension.
Pleasure principle
The ________________ is the id’s response to frustration based on the pleasure principle: obtain satisfaction now, not later.
Primary process
Mental imagery, such as daydreaming or fantasy, that fulfills the need for satisfaction in pleasure principle, is termed __________________.
Wish fulfillment
Because the mental imagery cannot effectively reduce tension on a permanent basis, the _________ comes into play.
Ego
The ego operates according to the _________________, taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id’s pleasure principle.
Reality principle
The ego operates according to the reality principle, taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id’s pleasure principle. This guidance is referred to as the ________________.
Secondary process
The _________ is also responsible for moderating the desires of the superego.
Ego
The ______________ is the personality’s perfectionist, judging our actions and responding with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures.
Superego
The superego can be divided into two subsystems: ______________ and ______________. Both of which are a reflection of the morals taught to children by their caregivers.
- Conscience
- Ego-ideal
The ______________ is a collection of the improper actions for which a child is punished.
Conscience
The _______________ consists of those proper actions for which a child is rewarded.
Ego-ideal
Freud stated that our access to the id, ego, and superego falls into three main categories: thoughts to which we have conscious access, thoughts that we aren’t currently aware of (________________), and thoughts that have been repressed (________________).
- Preconscious
- Unconscious
To Freud, an _____________ is an innate psychological representation of a biological need.
Instinct
________ instincts, based of Freud’s dynamic theory of personality, referred to as Eros, promote an individual’s quest for survival through thirst, hunger, and sexual needs.
Life instincts
________ instincts, based of Freud’s dynamic theory of personality, referred to as Thanatos, represent an unconscious wish for death and destruction.
Death instincts
The ego’s recourse for relieving anxiety caused by the clash of the id and superego is through ___________________.
Defense mechanisms
Freud’s first 4 defense mechanisms: RSRR
- _______________
- _______________
- _______________
- _______________
- Regression
- Suppression
- Regression
- Reaction formation
Freud’s last 4 defense mechanisms: PRDS
- _______________
- _______________
- _______________
- _______________
- Projection
- Rationalization
- Displacement
- Sublimation
______________ is the ego’s way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious and underlies many of the other defense mechanisms, the aim of which is to disguise threatening impulses that may find their way back from the unconscious.
Repression
While repression is mostly an unconscious forgetting, _______________ is a more deliberate, conscious form of forgetting.
Suppression
______________ is reversion to an earlier development state. Faced with stress, older children may return to earlier behaviours such as thumb sucking, throwing temper tantrums, or clinging too their mothers.
Regression
________________ occurs when an individual suppresses urges by unconsciously converting these urges into their exact opposites. For example, a person pining after an inaccessible celebrity may outwardly express hatred for the celebrity as a way of reducing the stress caused by these unrequited feelings.
Reaction formation
______________ is the defense mechanism by which individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others. I hate my parent might, for example, turn into My parents hate me.
Projection
The _________________, a test that makes use of projection (defense mechanism) to gain insight into a person’s mind, relies on the assumption that clients project their unconscious feelings onto the shape.
Rorschach inkblot test
The __________________, a test that makes use of projection (defense mechanism) to gain insight into a person’s mind, consists of a series of pictures that are presented to the client, who is asked to make up a story about each one. The story, presumably, will elucidate the client’s own unconscious thoughts and feelings.
Thematic apperception test
_______________ is the justification of behaviours in a manner that is acceptable to the self and society. Drivers who engage ion reckless feats might justify their dangerous pursuits by saying: “I’m in complete control, and besides, there are plenty of dangerous drivers on the road. What difference will one more make?”.
Rationalization
______________ describes the transference of an undesired urge from one person or object to another. Someone angry at a supervisor at work may remain quiet there but snap at a family member at home.
Displacement
_______________ is the transformation of unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviours. Freud might say that pent-up sexual urges may be sublimated into a drive for business or artistic creativity.
Sublimation
Unconsciously removing an idea for feeling from consciousness.
Repression
A person who survived six months in a concentration camp cannot recall anything about life during that time period. This is an example of ______________ (defense mechanism).
Repression
Consciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness.
Suppression
A terminally ill cancer patient puts aside feelings of anxiety to enjoy a family gathering. This is an example of ______________ (defense mechanism).
Suppression
Returning to an earlier stage of development.
Regression
A person speaks to a significant other in “baby talk” when relaying This is an example of ______________ (defense mechanism).
Regression
An unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite.
Reaction formation
Two coworkers fight all the time because they are actually very attracted to each other. This is an example of ______________ (defense mechanism).
Reaction formation
Attribution of wishes, desires, thoughts, or emotions to someone else.
Projection
A person who has committed adultery is convinced the spouse his cheating, despite a lack of evidence. This is an example of ______________ (defense mechanism).
Projection
Justification of attitudes, beliefs, or behaviours.
Rationalization
A murderer who claims that, while killing is wrong, this particular victim “deserved it”.
Rationalization
Changing the target of an emotion, while the feelings remain the same.
Displacement
When sent to their room as punishment, children begin to punch and kick their pillows. This is an example of ______________ (defense mechanism).
Displacement
Channeling of an unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable direction.
Sublimation
A boss who is attracted to an employee becomes that employee’s mentor and advisor. This is an example of ______________ (defense mechanism).
Sublimation
Conventional morality
Age: ______________ to ______________
Stages: _______________ and ______________
Age: Adolescence to adulthood
Stages: Conformity and Law and order
Postconventional morality:
Age: ______________
Stages: ______________ and _______________
Age: Adulthood
Stages: Social contract and Universal human ethics
Carl Jung identified the ego as the conscious mind, and he divided the unconscious into 2 parts: the ________________, similar to Freud’s notion of the unconscious, and the collective unconscious.
Personal unconscious
According to Carl Jung, the _________________ is a powerful system that is aired among all humans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors. Its building blocks are images of common experiences, such as having caregivers as children.
Collective unconscious
The images that are building blocks of the collective unconscious invariably have an emotional element, and are referred to as ______________ in Jung’s theory.
Archetypes
The ______________, a Jungian archetype, is likened to a mask that we wear in public, and is the part of our personality that we present to the world.
Persona
The ____________ (feminine) and the ____________ (masculine), are Jungian archetypes, describe gender-inappropriate qualities - in other words, feminine behaviours in males and masculine behaviours in females.
- Anima
- Animus
The ____________ archetype is responsible for the appearance of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions experienced in the unconscious mind.
Shadow
The _________, to Jung, was the point of intersection between the collective unconscious, the personal unconscious, and the conscious mind.
Self
Carl Jung developed _________________ to assess how unconscious elements may be influencing the conscious mind and thus the self.
Word association testing
Jung saw the self as a _____________: the promoter oof unity, balance, and harmony between the conscious mind, personal unconscious, and collective unconscious.
Mandala
Jung’s first dichotomy of personality:
_______________ (E, orientation toward the external world) vs. ______________ (I, orientation toward the inner, personal world).
- Extraversion
- Introversion
Jung’s second dichotomy of personality:
_____________ (S, obtaining objective information about the world) vs. _____________ (N, working with information abstractly).
- Sensing
- Intuiting
Jung’s third dichotomy of personality:
______________ (T, using logic and reasoning) vs. _____________ (F, using a value system or personal beliefs).
- Thinking
- Feeling
Jung’s dichotomies of personality laid the groundwork for creation of the ____________________ (__________), a classic personality test.
Myers-Briggs type inventory (MBTI)
Myers-Briggs Type Inventory personality test includes Jung’s three dichotomies, and a fourth - ____________ (J, preferring orderliness) vs ______________ (P, preferring spontaneity) - is labeled as a specific personality type.
- Judging
- Perceiving
Alfred Adler was the originator of the concept of the _______________: an individual’s sense of completeness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially.
Inferiority complex
According to Adler’s theory, the _______________ is the force by which individuals shape their uniqueness and establish their personality.
Creative self
______________ represents the manifestation of the creative self and describes a person’s unique way of achieving superiority.
Style of life
Another important concepts in Adler’s theory of personality is _________________. This is the notion that individuals are motivated more by their expectations of the future than by past experiences.
Fictional finalist
According to Adler, ______________ can often be summed up by the phrase “Life would be perfect if only…”
Fictional finalist
Whereas _____________’s major assumption is that behaviour is motivated by inborn instincts and ______________’s principle axiom is that a person’s conduct is governed by inborn archetypes, ____________ assumes that people are primarily motivated by striving for superiority.
- Sigmund Freud
- Carl Jung
- Alfred Adler
Karen Horney disagreed with Freud’s concept of penis envy. She postulated that individuals with neurotic personalities are govered by one of ten _________________.
Neurotic needs
_________________ theory refers to the representation of caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy. These objects then persist into adulthood and impact our interactions with others, including the social bonds we create and our predictions of others’ behaviour.
Object relations theory
In direct contrast to the psychoanalysts, who focus on “sick” individuals and their troubling urges, ________________ or ________________________ focus on the value of individuals and take a more person-centered approach, describing those ways in which healthy people strive toward self-realization.
Humanistic or phenomenological theorists
Humanism is often associated with ________________, in which practitioners tend to take a holistic view of the self, seeing each individual as a complete person rather than reducing the person to individual behaviours or drives.
Gestalt therapy
Kurt Lewin’s _________________ puts very little stock in constraints on personalities such as fixed traits, habits, and structures such as the id, ego, and superego. He focused little on an individual’s past or future, focusing instead on situations in present.
Force field theory
_____________ defined the field as one’s current state of mind, which was simply the sum of the forces (influences) on the individual at that time.
Kurt Lewin
According to Abraham Maslow, self-actualized people are more likely than people who are not self-actualized to have what he called ________________: profound and deeply moving experiences in a person’s life that have important and lasting effects on the individual.
Peak experiences
George Kelly used himself as a model to theorize about human nature, and set aside the traditional concepts of motivation, unconscious emotion, and reinforcement in his descriptions of _____________________.
Personal construct psychology
According to George Kelly, _______________ is a process of insight whereby people acquire new constructs that will allow them to successfully predict troublesome events.
Psychotherapy
Carl Rogers is most known for his psychotherapy technique known as ______________, ______________, or _______________ therapy.
- Client-centered
- Person-centered
- Nondirective
Carl Rogers pioneered the concept of ____________________, a therapeutic technique by which the therapist accepts the client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote a positive therapeutic environment.
Unconditional positive regard
____________ believed that people have the freedom to control their own behaviour, and are neither slaves to the unconscious (as the psychoanalysts would suggest), nor subjects to faulty learning (as the behaviourists would say).
Carl Rogers
_____________ attempt to create a taxonomy of personality types.
Type theorists
______________ prefer to describe individual personality as the sum of a person’s characteristic behaviours.
Trait theorists
The ancient Greeks devised personality types based on _____________ or body fluids, an imbalance of which could lead to various personality disorders.
Humors
According to the Greeks, each humor was correlated with an element, an imbalance of which could lead to different personalities:
- ___________ (sanguine; impulsive and charismatic)
- ___________ (choleric; aggressive and dominant)
- ___________ (melancholic; depressive and cautious)
- ___________ (phlegmatic; relax and affectionate)
- Blood
- Bile
- Black bile
- Phlegm
In the early 20th century, William Sheldon proposed personality types based on body type called _______________.
Somatotypes
Individuals with ____________ personalities are characterized by behaviour that tends to be competitive and compulsive.
Type A personalities
Someone described as __________ personality is generally laid-back and relaxed.
Type B personality
The _____________________ (________), also stands as a well-known example of a type theory.
Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI)
Hans and Sybil Eysenck (trait theorists) used factor analysis to group behaviours that typically occur together and assigned levels to those groups. These groups of behaviours are often called _________.
Traits
The Eysencks described three traits in the _____________.
PEN model
PEN model traits:
- ______________ is a measure of nonconformity for social deviance.
Psychoticism
PEN model traits:
- _______________ is a measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation.
Extraversion
PEN model traits:
- ______________ is a measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations
Neuroticism
The Big Five Traits of Personality: OCEAN
- _____________
- _____________
- _____________
- _____________
- _____________
- Openness
- Conscientiousness
- Extraversion
- Agreeableness
- Neuroticism
_______________, though not directly included in the PEN model, is related to neuroticism and describes how a person thinks of themselves and experiences negative emotions
Negative affect
More recently, the PEN theory has been expanded to what is known as the Five Factor Model, the _____________, which as the name would suggest, uses dimensions of five traits: OCEAN.
Big Five
In the Big Five theory, ____________ describes openness to experience, or willingness to engage with the world and desire to try new things.
Openness
In the Big Five theory, ____________________ is in some ways analogous to self control, with high conscientiousness associated with high impulse control and low conscientiousness associated with spontaneity.
Conscientiousness
According to the Big Five, ________________ refers to the degree to which a person is concerned about maintaining peace and harmony in their interactions with others.
Agreeableness
Gordon Allport, primarily a trait theorist, listed three basic types of traits or dispositions: _____________, _____________, and _______________.
- Cardinal
- Central
- Secondary
According to Allport, ________________ are traits around which people organize their lives.
Cardinal traits
According to Allport, _______________ represent major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer, such as honesty or charisma.
Central traits
According to Allport, _______________ are other personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence: aspects of one’s personality that only appear in close groups or specific social situations.
Secondary traits
A major part of Allport’s theory is the concept of _________________, in which a behaviour continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behaviour.
Functional autonomy
The hunter may have originally hunted to obtain food to eat. However, the hunter may continue even after there is enough food simply for the enjoyment of the hunt: that which began as a means to obtain a goal became the goal itself. This is an example of _________________.
Functional autonomy
David McClelland identified a personality trait that is referred to as the ___________________ (_________)
Need for achievement (N-Ach)
The _______________ perspective, championed by B. F. Skinner, is based heavily on the concepts of operant conditioning. He reasoned that personality is simply a reflection of behaviours that have been reinforced over time.
Behaviourist perspective
________________, for example, are often used in inpatient therapeutic settings: positive behaviour is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges, treats, or other reinforcers.
Token economies
The ________________ perspectives takes behaviourism one step further, focusing not just on how our environment influences our behaviour, but also on how we interact with that environment.
Social cognitive perspective
Albert Bandura’s concept of __________________ refers to the idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviours and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation.
Reciprocal determinism
Albert Bandura’s concept of reciprocal determinism is a central idea to the ________________ perspective.
Social cognitive perspective
________________ is another important concept in the social cognitive perspective: some people feel more in control of their environment while others feel that their environment controls them.
Locus of control
On the other end of the spectrum lies the ______________ perspective, which holds the personality can be explained as a result of genetic expression in the brain.
Biological perspective
The dichotomy presented by the social cognitive and biological perspectives of personality is similar to another debate in psychology: whether behaviour is primarily determined by an individual’s personality (the _________________ approach) or by the environment and context (the _________________ approach).
- Dispositional approach
- Situational approach
