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PSYCH 275 > Chapter 6: Drugs and Hormones > Flashcards

Chapter 6: Drugs and Hormones Flashcards

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1
Q

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

A

developmental disorder characterized by core behavioral symptoms including impulsivity, hyperactivity, and/or inattention

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2
Q

Psychopharmacology

A

study of how drugs affect the nervous system and behavior

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3
Q

Psychoactive Drug

A

substance that acts to alter mood, thought or behavior

is used to manage neuropsychological illness, and may be taken recreationally

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4
Q

Agonist

A

substance that enhances neurotransmitter function

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5
Q

Antagonist

A

substance that blocks neurotransmitter function

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6
Q

Tolerance

A

decrease in response to a drug with passage of time

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7
Q

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)

A

range of physical and intellectual impairments observed in some children born to alcoholic parents

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8
Q

Amphetamine

A

synthetic compound that increases the neurotransmitter dopamine in the synaptic cleft by reversing the dopamine transporter

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9
Q

Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia?

A

idea that excess dopamine activity causes symptoms of schizophrenia

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10
Q

Major Depression

A

mood disorder characterized by prolonged feelings of worthlessness and guilt, disruption of normal eating habits, insomnia, a general slowing of behavior, and frequent thoughts of suicide

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11
Q

Monoamine Oxidase (MAO) Inhibitor

A

drug that blocks the enzyme monoamine oxidase from degrading such neurotransmitters as 5-HT, NE and DA

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12
Q

Tricyclic

A

drug, characterized by its three-ring chemical structure, that blocks 5-HT reuptake transporter proteins

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13
Q

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRI)

A

drug that blocks 5-HT reuptake into the presynaptic terminal and most commonly used to treat depression

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14
Q

Competitive Inhibitor

A

drug used to treat overdoses and opioid addiction, an example is naloxone, which acts quickly to block opioid action by competing with the opioid for binding sites

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15
Q

How do drugs and hormones influence brain and behavior?

A

principles of psychopharmacology

psychoactive drugs

factors influencing individual responses to drugs

explaining and treating drug abuse

hormones

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16
Q

What is psychopharmacology?

A

study of the ways drugs affect the nervous system and behavior

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17
Q

What are drugs?

A

chemical compounds administered to produce a desired change

improvement of physical/mental symptomatology

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18
Q

What are psychoactive drugs?

A

substance that acts to alter moods, thought, or behavior, used to manage neuropsychological illness

often used recreationally

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19
Q

What are the routes of drug administration?

A

the way a drug enters/passes through the body to reach target

a psychoactive drug has to reach it’s target to work

can be administered: orally or inhaled, absorbed through skin or mucous membranes, injected into the bloodstream, into a muscle, or even into the brain

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20
Q

What is the effect of injecting a drug directly into the brain?

A

allows it to act quickly in low doses because it encounters fewer barriers

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21
Q

What is the effect of ingesting a drug orally?

A

safest, easiest, and most convenient way to administer them

drugs that are weak acids pass from the stomach into the bloodstream

drugs that are weak bases pass from the intestines to the bloodstream

has the most barriers to the brain

ingestion>absorption by stomach/small intestine

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22
Q

What is the effect of injecting a drug in muscles?

A

encounter more barriers than do drugs inhaled

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23
Q

What is the effect of inhaling drugs into the lungs?

A

encounter few barriers en route to the brain

gases or aerosols penetrate the cell linings of respiratory tract easily

absorbed by membranes into bloodstream almost immediately after inhalation

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24
Q

What is the effect of injecting drugs into the bloodstream?

A

encounter the fewest barriers to the brain but must be hydrophilic

when injected into bloodstream a drug passes through less obstacles

with each obstacle eliminated en route to the brain, a drug’s dosage can be reduced by a factor of 10

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25
Q

How do drugs enter the bloodstream in the stomach?

A

drug must be water-soluble

diluted over the body through blood to reach target

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26
Q

What is the effect of drugs being absorbed by the skin?

A

drugs contained in adhesive patches are absorbed through the skin and into the bloodstream

the skin is made out of protective layers

small molecule drugs can penetrate the skin barrier

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27
Q

What is the factor of 10 rule?

A

1 milligram (1000 micrograms) of amphetamine produces a noticeable behavioral change orally

if inhaled into the lungs or injected into the blood, circumventing the stomach, a dose of just 100ug yields the same results

if amphetamine is injected into the cerebrospinal fluid, bypassing both the stomach and the blood, 10ug us enough to produce an identical outcome

1ug if the drug is applied directly to target neurons

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28
Q

What is the blood brain barrier?

A

the body presents a number of barriers to the internal movement of drugs: cell membranes, capillary walls, and the placenta

the blood-brain barrier prevents most substances from entering the brain via the bloodstream

protects the brain’s ionic balance

denies neurochemicals that can disrupt neural communication

protects the brain from circulating hormones and form toxins/infectious diseases

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29
Q

What are endothelial cells in the blood-brain barrier?

A

endothelial cells form a layer that lines the blood vessels, regulate exchanges between bloodstream and surrounding tissues

endothelial cells in capillaries throughout the body are not tightly joined

it’s easy for substances to move out and into the bloodstream

endothelial cell walls in the brain are fused to form tight junctions, so most substances cannot squeeze between them

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30
Q

What are astrocytes in the blood-brain barrier?

A

astrocytes provide a route for the exchange of food and waste between capillaries and the brain’s extracellular fluid, as well as from there to other cells

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31
Q

What are barrier free brain sites?

A

the pineal gland
pituitary
area postrema

32
Q

How do molecules gain access to the brain?

A

to carry out it’s work the brain needs oxygen and glucose for fuel and amino acids to build proteins

fuel molecules reach brain cells from the blood, carbon dioxide and other waste products are excreted from brain cells and are carried away by the blood

molecules of these vital substances cross the blood-brain barrier in two ways

33
Q

How do molecules cross the brain barrier to promote brain function?

A

small, uncharged molecules (oxygen and carbon dioxide) are fat soluble and can freely pass through the endothelial membranes

complex molecules of glucose, amino acids, and other food components are carried across the membrane by active transport systems or ion pumps

transporter proteins specialized to convey a particular substance

some psychoactive drugs (must be sufficiently small or have the correct chemical structure) do gain access to the CNS

34
Q

How does the body eliminate drugs?

A

some substances that cannot be removed may build up in the body and become toxic

drugs are broken down (catabolized) in the kidneys, liver, and intestines

drugs are excreted in urine, feces, sweat, breast milk, and exhaled air

the liver is active in catabolizing drugs, houses a family of enzymes involved in drug catabolism

the cytochrome P450 enzyme family is involved in drug catabolism, some of which are also present in the gastrointestinal tract microbiome

the liver is capable of catabolizing many drugs into forms that are more easily excreted from the body

waste management is necessary

35
Q

What is drug action at the synapses?

A

most psychoactive drugs exert their effects by influencing synaptic chemical signaling

agonist: drugs that increase neurotransmission
antagonist: drugs that block decrease neurotransmission

36
Q

What is tolerance?

A

decreased response to a drug with repeated exposure

different types of tolerance

each likely to develop with increased drug exposure

37
Q

What is metabolic tolerance?

A

increase in number of enzymes in liver, blood, or brain used to break down a substance

metabolized faster = blood levels decrease

38
Q

What is cellular tolerance?

A

activities of brain cells adjust to minimize effects of substance

accounts for low signs of intoxication with high blood alcohol levels

39
Q

What is learned tolerance?

A

people learn to cope with being intoxicated

person may no longer appear intoxicated

40
Q

What is sensitization?

A

the occasional drug taker may have an increased responsiveness to successive equal doses

whereas tolerance generally develops with repeated use of a drug, sensitization is much more likely to develop with periodic use

41
Q

What is the relevance of sensitization?

A

many drug therapies (e.g. schizophrenia) must be taken for several weeks before they produce beneficial effects

sensitization is related to dependence, before a person becomes dependent, the person must be sensitized by numerous experiences with the drug

life experiences, especially stressful ones, can produce effects resembling sensitization that prime the nervous system for addiction

42
Q

What are psychoactive drugs?

A

people have been using drugs for therapeutic and recreational reasons throughout history

the DSM offers a classification system for diagnosing neurological and behavioral disorders

psychoactive drugs can be grouped based on the primary neurotransmitter system that they are known to affect

43
Q

What are adenosinergic drugs?

A

the most widely consumed psychoactive drug, caffeine, is adenosinergic

binds to adenosine receptors without activating them (adenosine antagonist)

endogenous adenosine induces drowsiness

leads to alertness

also inhibits an enzyme that ordinarily breaks down the second messenger, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), the resulting increase in cAMP leads to increased glucose production, making more energy available and allowing higher rates of cellular activity

promotes the release of dopamine and acetylcholine, stimulant effect > improved RT, focus, etc.

repeated daily intake of caffeine produces a mild form of drug dependence

fade within a week of abstinence

44
Q

What are cholinergic drugs?

A

nicotine is found in the leaves of the tobacco plant (nicotiana tabacum), feelings of relaxation, sharpness, calmness, and alertness

within a few seconds from inhalation nicotine stimulates acetylcholine nicotinic receptors

at low doses, nicotine is a stimulant, but at very high doses, it dampens neuronal activity

acetylcholine nicotinic receptors causes the release of acetylcholine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, serotonin, endorphins, and dopamine

potentially lethal poison, but tolerance develops rapidly

dependence involves both psychological and physical aspects

smoking cessation leads to heightened anxiety, irritability, craving, anhedonia, and tremors

45
Q

What is nicotine?

A

nicotine is a potentially lethal poison

harmful chemicals in cigarettes, lung cancer, respiratory diseases, cancer, etc.

risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease, cholinergic agonist drugs prescribed to treat Alzheimer’s

46
Q

What are GABAergic drugs?

A

at low doses, GABAergic agonists reduce anxiety, at medium doses they sedate, at high doses they anesthetic or induce coma

GABA receptor contains a binding site for GABA, one for alcohol and one for benzodiazepines plus a Cl- channel

excitation of the GABA receptor produces an influx of Cl- through its pore

an influx of Cl- increases the concentration of negative charges inside the cell membrane, hyperpolarizing it and making it less likely to propagate an action potential

widespread reduction of neuronal firing underlies the behavioral effects of drugs that affect the GABA synapse

benzodiazepines include diazepam (Valium), alprazolam (Xanax), and clonazepam (Klonopin) and are medically prescribed to reduce anxiety

repeated doses result in increased tolerance

cross tolerance for benzos and alcohol because they act on the NS in similar ways

47
Q

What are GABAergic receptors?

A

alcohol consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects that depend on several factors

alcohol volume, body mass, food intake, etc.

small amounts improve mood, sociability, fine muscle coordination, etc.

long term and frequent consumption of alcohol can lead to increased risk of alcoholism

alcoholism results in damage to the central and peripheral nervous systems, as well as nearly every other system and organ in the body

48
Q

What are GABA receptors, development, and FASD?

A

drugs that act on GABA receptors also affect brain development because GAVA is one of the substances that regulate brain development

49
Q

What are glutamatergic drugs?

A

the glutamatergic system has several receptors, such as NMDA, AMPA, and kainite

antagonists for the NMDA receptor such as phencyclidine (PCP) and ketamine can produce hallucinations and out-of-body experiences

both PCP and ketamine are also known as dissociative anesthetics

compounds that produce feelings of detachment (dissociation) from the environment and self because they distort perceptions of sight and sound

ketamine is currently medically prescribed for starting and maintaining anesthesia

50
Q

What are dopaminergic drugs?

A

dopamine agonists that are used recreationally: cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine

dopamine agonists that are medically prescribed: dextroamphetamine (adderall), methylphenidate (ritalin), L-dopa

dopamine antagonists that are medically prescribed for schizophrenia and drug-induced psychosis

51
Q

What are dopamine agonists?

A

cocaine is purified from leaves of the coca plant

refined cocaine power can either be sniffed (or snorted) or injected

crack cocaine is chemically altered so that it vaporizes at low temperatures, and the vapors are inhaled

amphetamine increases dopamine in the synaptic cleft by reversing the dopamine transporter

cocaine also blocks the reuptake

but amphetamines also reverse the transporter that packages dopamine in vesicles

takes packaged dopamine and releases it into terminal

52
Q

What are amphetamines?

A

a widely used illegal amphetamine derivative is methamphetamine

relatively inexpensive but potent (devastating drug)

amphetamine (adderall) and methylphenidate (ritalin) are medically prescribed to treat ADHD

a recreational dose is 50 times stronger than a clinical dose

dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

some forms of the disease may be related to excessive frontal lobe dopamine activity

the use of dopamine antagonist drugs that preferentially bind to D2 receptors has improved the functioning people with schizophrenia

53
Q

What are serotonergic agonists?

A

natural recreationally used serotonergic (mescaline, DMT, and psilocybin)

synthetic recreationally used serotonergic (LSD and MDMA/ectasy)

currently, these recreationally used drugs are not medically prescribed and are illegal

some serotonergic agonists are medically prescribed for the treatment of major depression

54
Q

What are monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors?

A

drug that blocks the enzyme monoamine oxidase from degrading such neurotransmitters as 5-HT, NE and DA

55
Q

What are tricyclic receptors?

A

drug, characterized by its three-ring chemical structure, which blocks 5-HT reuptake transporter protein

56
Q

What are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)?

A

drug that blocks 5-HT reuptake into the presynaptic terminal and is most commonly used to treat depression

57
Q

What are the drug effects of 5-HT receptors?

A

different drugs prescribed to treat depression act on serotonin synapse in different ways to increase its availability

some people can’t tolerate the side effects of antidepressants (increased anxiety, reduced libido, etc.)

58
Q

What are opioids?

A

any endogenous or exogenous compound that binds to opioid receptors to produce morphine-like effects

sleep inducing (narcotic) and pain-relieving (analgesic) properties

59
Q

What are three sources of opioids?

A

isolated (morphine, codeine)

altered (heroin, oxycodone)

synthetic (fentanyl and methadone)

60
Q

What is opium?

A

opium is a white milky latex extracted from the seed pods of the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum

used for thousands of years

relief from pain, coughing, induce sleep, etc.

61
Q

What are opioidergic?

A

natural opioids include codeine and morphine

semi-synthetic opioids include heroin and oxycodone (mu receptors)

heroin more potent than morphine

penetrates blood-brain barrier faster

synthetic opioids include fentanyl (prescribed for pain management)

alter pain perception, relaxation, and lead to euphoria

can lead to respiratory depression (primary cause of death in users)

62
Q

What are characteristics of opioid addiction?

A

all opioids are potently addictive, and abuse of medically prescribed opioids is at a crisis point worldwide

repeated opioid use produces tolerance such that within a few weeks, the effective dosage may increase tenfold

brutal withdrawal symptom upon withdrawal

because opioid use results in both tolerance and sensitization, an opioid user is at constant risk of overdosing

63
Q

What is naloxone?

A

drugs such as naloxone act as antagonists at opioid receptors

naloxone is a competitive inhibitor, a drug used to treat overdoses and opioid addiction and that acts quickly to block opioid action by competing with the opioid for binding sites

64
Q

What are cannabinergic drugs?

A

tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is one of the 84 cannabinoids and the main psychoactive constituent in cannabis

THC alters mood primarily by interacting with the cannabidiol 1 (CB1) receptor found on neurons, and it also binds with the CB2 receptors found on glial cells and in other body tissues

cannabis has extremely low toxicity, not a single documented cannabis-overdose death in history

evidence points to the usefulness of THC and cannabidiol (CBD), another cannabinoid, as therapeutic agents for a number of disorders

more research is needed to unpack the full effects of cannabis consumption

65
Q

Disinhibition Theory

A

explanation holding that alcohol has a selective depressant effect on the brain’s frontal cortex, which controls judgement, while sparing subcortical structures responsible for more instinctual behaviors, such as desire

66
Q

Behavioral Myopia

A

“nearsighted” behavior displayed under the influence of alcohol, wherein local and immediate cues become prominent, remote cues and consequences are ignored

67
Q

Substance Abuse

A

a pattern of drug use in which people rely on a drug chronically and excessively, allowing it to occupy a central place in their life

68
Q

Addiction

A

a complex brain disorder characterized by escalation, compulsive drug taking, and relapse

called substance use disorder per the DSM-5

69
Q

Withdrawal Symptoms

A

physical and psychological behavior displayed by a user when drug use ends

70
Q

Psychomotor Activation

A

increased behavioral and cognitive activity so that at certain levels of consumption, the drug user feels energetic and in control

71
Q

Wanting-and-Liking Theory

A

explanation holding that when a drug is associated with certain cues, the cues themselves elicit desire for the drug, also called incentive sensitization theory

72
Q

Steroid Hormone

A

fat-soluble chemical messenger synthesized from cholesterol

73
Q

Peptide Hormone

A

chemical messenger synthesized by cellular DNA that acts to affect the target cell’s physiology

74
Q

Homeostatic Hormone

A

one of a group of hormones that maintain internal metabolic balance and regulate physiological systems in an organism

75
Q

Gonadal (Sex) Hormone

A

one of a group of hormones, such as testosterone, that control reproductive functions and bestow sexual appearance and identity as male or female

76
Q

Glucocorticoid

A

one of a group of steroid hormones, such as cortisol, secreted in times of stress, important in protein and carbohydrate metabolism

77
Q

Anabolic Steroid

A

class of synthetic hormones related to testosterone that have both muscle-building (anabolic) and masculinizing (androgenic) effects

PSYCH 275 (11 decks)

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