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PSYCH 275 > Chapter 3: Nervous System's Functional Units > Flashcards

Chapter 3: Nervous System's Functional Units Flashcards

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1
Q

Cell Body (Soma)

A

core region of the cell containing the nucleus and other organelles for making proteins

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2
Q

Dendrite

A

branching extension of a neuron’s cell membrane, greatly increases the cell’s surface area, collects information from other cells

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3
Q

Axon

A

root, or single fiber, of a neuron that carries messages to other neurons

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4
Q

Neural Network

A

functional group of neurons that connects wide areas of the brain and spinal cord

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5
Q

Axon Hillock

A

juncture of soma and axon

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6
Q

Axon Collateral

A

branch of an axon

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7
Q

Terminal Button (End Foot)

A

knob at the tip of an axon that conveys information to other neurons

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8
Q

Synapse

A

spatial junction between one neuron and another, forms the information transfer site between neurons

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9
Q

Sensory Neuron

A

cell that detects or carries sensory information into the spinal cord and brain

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10
Q

Interneurons

A

association cell interposed between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron, in mammels interneurons consitute most of the brain’s neurons

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11
Q

Motor Neuron

A

cell that carries efferent information from the brain and spinal cord to make muscles contract

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12
Q

Bipolar Neuron

A

sensory neuron with one axon and one dendrite

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13
Q

Somatosensory Neuron

A

brain cell that brings sensory information from the body into the spinal cord

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14
Q

Pyramidal Cell

A

distinctly shaped interneuron found in the cerebral cortex

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15
Q

Purkinje Cell

A

distinctly shaped interneuron found in the cerebellum

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16
Q

Glial Cell

A

nervous system cell that provides insulation, nutrients, and support and that aids in repairing neurons and eliminating waste products

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17
Q

Tumor

A

mass of new tissue that grows uncontrolled and independent of surrounding structures

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18
Q

Ependymal Cell

A

glial cell that makes and secretes CSF, found on the walls of the brain’s ventricles

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19
Q

Hydrocephalus

A

buildup of fluid pressure in the brain and, in infants, swelling of the head, if the flow of CSF is blocked, can result in intellectual impairment

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20
Q

Astrocyte

A

star-shaped glial cell that provides structural support to CNS neurons and transports substances between neurons and blood vessels

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21
Q

Microglia

A

glial cells that originate in the blood, aid in cell repair, and scavenge debris in the nervous system

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22
Q

Myelin

A

glial coating that surrounds axons in the central and peripheral nervous systems, prevents adjacent neurons from short-circuiting

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23
Q

Oligodendroglia

A

glial cells in the CNS that myelinate axons

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24
Q

Schwann Cell

A

glial cell in the PNS that myelinates sensory and motor axons

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25
Q

Paralysis

A

loss of sensation and movement due to nervous system injury

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26
Q

What is the neuron?

A

specialized cell of the nervous system

building block of the nervous system and human behavior

information processing

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27
Q

Who was Camillo Golgi?

A

Golgi stain method: brain tissue sin silver nitrate and other chemicals

the nervous system is composed of a network of interconnected fibers: a “nerve net”

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28
Q

Who was Santiago Ramon y Cajal?

A

used Golgi’s stain to study brain tissue in chick embryos

showed that neurons come in many shapes, sizes

showed that neurons can be distinguished from glial cells

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29
Q

What is Cajal’s Neuron Theory?

A

neurons are the nervous system’s functional units

he showed that the nervous system was made up of discrete cells, thereby supporting the neuron hypothesis

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30
Q

What is the basic structure of a neuron?

A

core region called soma

branching extensions, or dendrites, collect information from other cells

main root is the single axon, which carries messages to other neurons

a neuron only has one axon, but most have many dendrites

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31
Q

How are neurons the basis of information processing?

A

neurons acquire information, store it, as memory, interpret it, and pass the information along to other neurons to produce behavior

neurons work together in groups of many hundreds to many thousands to produce most behavior

86 million neurons (87 billion glial) in CNS

functional groups of neurons, or neural networks, connect wide areas of the brain and spinal cord

an ongoing effort aims to map the structural connectivity, the physical wiring or connectome, of the entire human brain

neurons are constantly producing new branches, losing old ones, making and losing connections with other

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32
Q

What are dendritic spines?

A

protrusion from a dendrite that greatly increases its surface area and is the usual point of contact with axons of other cells, neurons might have up to 20 dendrites

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33
Q

What is the axon hillock?

A

juncture of the soma and axon, where the action potential begins

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34
Q

What are axon collaterals?

A

branches of an axon, axon collaterals divide into multiple branches

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35
Q

What are telodendria?

A

end branches of an axon

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36
Q

What is the terminal button?

A

end of telodendrion, knob at the tip of an axon that conveys information to other neurons

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37
Q

What is the synapse?

A

gap between one neuron and another neuron and a dendritic spine of another neuron

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38
Q

What are sensory neurons?

A

simplest type of neuron (structurally)

bipolar neurons

somatosensory neuron: brings sensory information from the body into the spinal cord

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39
Q

What are the different types of interneurons?

A

aka association cells (link up sensory and motor neurons)
stellate (star-shaped) cell
pyramidal cell
purkinje cell

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40
Q

What are stellate (star-shaped) cells?

A

small, many dendrites extend around the cell body

more abundant in larger species

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41
Q

What are pyramidal cells?

A

has a long axon, a pyramidal-shaped cell body

carries information from the cortex to brain and spinal cord

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42
Q

What are purkinje cells?

A

a distinctive interneuron with extremely branched dendrites that form a fan shape

carries information from the cerebellum to the brain and spinal cord

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43
Q

What are motor neurons?

A

large dendritic networks (to reach out to muscles)

motor neurons reside in the lower brainstem and spinal cord

all efferent (outgoing) neural information must pass through them to reach the muscles

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44
Q

What are neuronal networks?

A

sensory neurons collect afferent (incoming) information from the body and connect to interneurons that process the information and pass it on to motor neurons

the motor neuron’s efferent connections move muscles and so produce behavior

features of neuronal networks: input, association, and output

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45
Q

What is excitation and inhibition?

A

each neuron receives thousands of excitatory and inhibitory signals every second

neurons sum these signals and respond accordingly, becoming active or not

from the simple yes/no language of neurons emerge enormous possibilities for behavior

46
Q

How do neurons respond to ongoing inhibitory and excitatory signals?

A

inputs are summed

the resulting inhibitory or excitatory input is executed

a neuron sends messages to other neurons if its excitatory inputs exceed its inhibitory inputs

if the reverse occurs and inhibitory inputs exceed excitatory inputs, the neuron does not communicate

47
Q

Gene

A

DNA segment that encodes the synthesis of a particular protein

48
Q

Protein

A

folded-up polypeptide chain that serves a particular function in the body

49
Q

Channels

A

opening up of a protein embedded in the cell membrane that allows the passage of ions

50
Q

Gate

A

protein embedded in a cell membrane that allows substances to pass through the membrane on some occasions but not on others

51
Q

Pump

A

protein in the cell membrane that actively transports a substance across the membrane

52
Q

What are glial cells?

A

nervous system’s support cells

no info passing but they can: bind neurons together, provide insulation, help neurons repair, eliminate waste

53
Q

What are ependymal cells?

A

small ovoid; found in the walls of ventricles

make and secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

hydrocephalus: buildup of pressure in the brain and swelling of the head caused if the flow of CSF is blocked (from the cerebral aqueduct into the fourth ventricle)

54
Q

What are astrocytes (or astroglia)?

A

shar shaped, symmetrical

its extensions attach to blood vessels/brain lining to hold neurons in place

transport substances between neurons and capillaries (blood-brain barrier)

play a role in scar tissue formation, facilitates brain healing in damaged tissue

enhance brain activity by providing fuel to active brain regions

55
Q

What are microglia?

A

frontline players in protecting the nervous system and removing its waste

originate in the blood and migrates through the NS

monitor and maintain the health of brain tissue (its immune system)

identify and attack foreign tissue (phagocytosis: engulf and trap foreign body to destroy it)

when brain cells are damaged, microglia invade the area to provide growth factors that aid in repair

56
Q

What is myelin?

A

glial coating that surrounds axons

myelinated neurons transmit information faster

long distance signal transmission: requires heavily myelinated axons to increase messaging speed

57
Q

What are oligodendroglia cells?

A

glial cells in the central nervous system that myelinate axons in the brain and spinal cord

send out large, flat branches that enclose and separate adjacent axons

58
Q

What are Schwann cells?

A

glial cells in the peripheral nervous system that myelinate axons

each Schwann cell wraps itself repeatedly around a part of an axon, forming a structure somewhat like beads on a string

59
Q

What is multiple sclerosis (MS)?

A

nervous system disorder associated with loss of myelin, damage to oligodendroglia and Schwann cells

leave scar instead of myelin

information flow along affected nerves is impaired, producing impaired movement and cognitive function

60
Q

What is paralysis?

A

loss of sensation and movement due to nervous system injury

microglia and Schwann cells help repair neurons in the PNS

61
Q

What is the relationship between glial cells, disease and neuron repair?

A

when the CNS is damaged regrowth and repair do not occur

central nervous system repair does not take place, regrowth may be inhibited

CNS neuronal circuits become exquisitely turned to mediate individualized behavior, and in doing so, develop chemical strategies that prevent the proliferation of new cells or the regrowth of existing cells

62
Q

What is the internal structure of the cell?

A

to a large extent, a cell’s proteins determine it’s characteristics and functions

each cell can manufacture thousands of proteins

involved in memory formation, cell function/malfunction and restoration of function

water, salts, and ions play prominent parts in the cell’s functions

63
Q

What is salty water?

A

medium for neuron activities

supports neuronal communication

constitutes CSF

64
Q

What is the cell membrane?

A

impermeable

separates intracellular and extracellular fluid

regulates movement of substances into and out of the cell (most cannot pass)

regulates the concentration of salts and other chemicals to maintain normal functioning

made up of phospholipids
hydrophilic head: phosphorus
hydrophobic tail: lipids (fat molecules)

65
Q

What is the nucleus?

A

the cell’s executive office

blueprints for making proteins (genes) are stored, copied and sent

66
Q

What is a gene?

A

segment of DNA that encodes the synthesis of particular proteins

67
Q

What is a chromosome?

A

located in nucleus

double-helix structure that holds an organism’s entire DNA sequence

contain thousands of genes

68
Q

What is an element?

A

naturally occurring substance, cannot be broken down into another substance

69
Q

What is an atom?

A

smallest quantity of an element that retains the properties of that element

atoms are electrically neutral

70
Q

What is an ion?

A

atoms of chemically reactive elements (e.g. sodium, chlorine) can gain/lose electrons

protons carry a positive charge, electrons carry a negative charge

ion = charged atom

71
Q

What are molecules?

A

formed when atoms bind together

smallest units of a substance that contain all of that substance’s properties

72
Q

What are salts?

A

when NaCl is formed, sodium (Na+) gives up an electron to chloride (Cl-)

positively and negatively charged ions tightly held together by their electrical connection

73
Q

What is water?

A

atoms held together by shared electrons

polar molecules: they are attracted to other electrically charged substances and to each other

hydrogen bonding enables water to dissolve electrically neutral salt into its component ions

74
Q

Allele

A

alternative form of a gene, a gene pair contains two alleles

75
Q

Homozygous

A

having two identical alleles for a trait

76
Q

Heterozygous

A

having two different alleles for the same trait

77
Q

Mutation

A

alternation of an allele that yields a different version its protein

78
Q

Tay-Sachs Disease

A

inherited birth defect caused by the loss of genes that encode the enzyme necessary for breaking down certain fatty substances, appears 4 to 6 months after birth and results in intellectual disability, physical changes, and death by about age 5

79
Q

Wild Type

A

typical allele (most common in population)

80
Q

Huntington Disease

A

hereditary disease characterized by chorea (ceaseless involuntary jerky movements) and progressive dementia ending in death

81
Q

Down Syndrome

A

chromosomal abnormality resulting in intellectual impairment another abnormalities, usually caused by an extra chromosome 21

82
Q

Transgenic Animals

A

product of technology in which one or more genes from one species is introduced into the genome of another species to be passed along and expressed in subsequent generations

83
Q

Gene (DNA) Methylation

A

epigenetic process in which a methyl group attaches to the DNA sequence, suppressing or enabling gene expression

84
Q

What is the first step in protein making?

A

DNA strand unwind to expose bases

attracts free floating nucleotides

nucleotide attaches to DNA to form a complementary RNA strand

the single RNA strand detaches from DNA and carries the code for protein synthesis outside the cell

85
Q

What is transcription?

A

making a copy

early phase of protein synthesis in which the DNA strands unwind and a complementary strand of messenger RNA (ribonucleic acid) is produced

86
Q

What is the endoplasmic reticulum?

A

the ER is studded with ribosomes

protein structures that act as catalysts for protein synthesis

87
Q

What is translation?

A

later phase of protein synthesis in which the messenger RNA (mRNA) travels from the nucleus to the ER (through a ribosome)

mRNA is translated into a particular sequence of amino acids to form a protein

88
Q

What is a codon?

A

sequence of three bases on mRNA that codes for a particular amino acid chain

89
Q

What are proteins?

A

amino acid

building blocks that form polypeptide chain: a series of amino acids

polypeptide chain: a series of amino acids

fundamental in for protein synthesis, tissue repair, etc.

DNA > mRNA > protein

proteins can change shape and combine with other proteins, can act as enzymes

90
Q

What are the functions of proteins?

A

regulate the flow of substances across the membrane

can be exported from cell to cell

can act as messenger molecules

91
Q

What are golgi bodies?

A

package proteins in membranes (vesicles) and give them a label indicating where they are to go

92
Q

What are microtubules?

A

transport vesicles to their destination inside or outside of their cell

93
Q

What are the steps of protein packaging and shipment?

A
  1. Proteins formed in the ER enter the Golgi bodies, where they are wrapped in a membrane and given a shipping address
  2. Each protein package is attached to a motor molecule and moves along a microtubule to its destination
  3. A protein may be incorporated into the membrane
  4. A protein may be remain within the cell to act as an enzyme
  5. A protein may be excreted from the cell by exocytosis
94
Q

What is a genotype?

A

genetic makeup

95
Q

What is a phenotype?

A

individual characteristics physical and behavioral traits

96
Q

How do molecules cross the cell membrane?

A

an amino acid sequence influences the shape of a protein

proteins change shape when other chemicals bind to them, or in response to changes in electrical charge

some proteins are embedded in the cell membrane

serve many functions, including transporting small molecules across the membrane

the transport function is performed by membrane proteins (channels, gates, and pumps)

97
Q

What are Mendelian genetics and the genetic code?

A

nucleus of human somatic cells: 23 pairs of chromosomes

pairs 1-22 are called autosomes

contain the genes that contribute most to our physical appearance and behavioral functions

pair 23 are the sex chromosomes, which contribute to our physical and behavioral sexual characteristics

98
Q

What is an allele?

A

a cell contains two copies of every gene (one from the mother, one from the father), matching copies are alleles

dominant allele: the member of the gene pair that is routinely expressed

recessive allele: the member of the gene pair that is routinely unexpressed

99
Q

What is complete dominance?

A

only the dominant allele’s trait is expressed in the phenotype

100
Q

What is incomplete dominance?

A

the phenotypic expression of the dominant allele’s trait is only partial

101
Q

What is codominance?

A

the traits of both alleles of a gene pair are expressed completely in the phenotype

102
Q

What are genetic mutations?

A

errors in the nucleotide sequence

errors can arise in the nucleotide sequence when reproductive cells make gene copies

a mutation may be as small as a change in a single nucleotide base or single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), results in change in codon

a mutation in a nucleotide can be beneficial, disruptive or both

effects may be specific of widespread

most mutations have negative effects

103
Q

What is Tay-Sachs disease?

A

inherited birth defect caused by dysfunction of genes that encode the enzyme necessary for breaking don certain fatty substances

results in cell damage from lipid accumulation

appears 4 to 6 months after births, results in intellectual disability, physical changes, and death by about age 5

caused by a recessive allele

104
Q

What is Huntington disease?

A

disorder that results in motor and cognitive disturbances

caused by alterations in chromosome 4

the buildup of an abnormal version of the Huntington protein kills brain cells, especially in the basal ganglia and the cortex

105
Q

What is genetic engineering?

A

methods to influence the traits that genes express

manipulating a genome, adding or removing genes from a genome

approaches: selective breeding has produced dogs that can run fast, work as guards, retrieve prey, etc.

106
Q

What is cloning?

A

producing an offspring that is genetically identical to another animal

clones can be used to preserve valuable traits, to study the relative influences of heredity and environment, or to produce new tissue or organs for transplant to the donor

107
Q

What is the transgenic technique?

A

introduction of genes into an embryo or removal of genes from it

chimeric animals, with parents of two species, have genes from both species, behaviors are a product of both species

knock-in technology is in use when genes from one species are added to the genome of another species and expressed in subsequent generations

knock out technology is used to inactivate a gene so that a line of mic fails to express it

108
Q

What is the relationship between phenotypic plasticity and the epigenetic code?

A

the extent of our phenotypic variation, given the same genotype can be dramatic

every individual has a capacity to develop into more than one phenotype

phenotypic plasticity: the capacity of the genome to express a large number of phenotypes

epigenetics: the influence of environment on selection of one or another phenotype

109
Q

How do you apply the epigenetic code?

A

the environment call allow a gene to be expressed or prevent its expression

110
Q

What is epigenetics?

A

explains how a single genome can code for many phenotype

describe how cell functions go astray to produce diseases ranging from cancer to brain dysfunction

epigenetic mechanisms influence protein production: by blocking a gene so that it cannot be transcribed, by unlocking a gene so that it can be transcribed

an environmental influence allows the environment to regulate gene expression and influence behavior

PSYCH 275 (11 decks)

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