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PSYCH 275 > Chapter 11: Response to Stimulation and Production of Movement > Flashcards

Chapter 11: Response to Stimulation and Production of Movement Flashcards

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1
Q

What way does afferent somatosensory information travel?

A

travels from the sensory organs inward via the somatic nervous system

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2
Q

What way does movement information travel?

A

travels out of the central nervous system via a parallel efferent motor system

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3
Q

What are the steps that information travels between the nerve and the spine?

A
  1. fibers entering the posterior root bring sensory information from sensory receptors
  2. fibers leaving the anterior root carry motor information to the muscles
  3. Collateral branches of sensory neurons may cross to the other side and influence motor neurons there
  4. White-matter fiber tracts carry information to and from the brain
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4
Q

What are the spinal segments and dermatomes?

A

the spinal cord lies within a series of small bones called vertebrae

each spinal segment corresponds to a region of body surface called dermatome

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5
Q

What is the layering in the neocortex?

A

the six cortical layers differ in appearance, characteristics, and functions

sensory regions have a large input layer, and motor regions have a large output layer

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6
Q

How is movement control hierarchical and parallel?

A

the movement required to pick up a cup involves widespread CNS regions

forebrain areas must act through lower functional areas: the brainstem and spinal cord

there must be some parallel organization within these areas so you can do other behaviors (e.g. speaking) while picking up a cup

there must also be some independence in the function of these brain regions, movement independent of conscious control

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7
Q

What are the steps of sequentially organized movement?

A
  1. visual information required to locate the target
  2. frontal-lobe motor areas plan the reach and command movement
  3. spinal cord carries information to the hand
  4. motor neurons carry message to muscles of the hand and forearm
  5. sensory receptors on the fingers send message to sensory cortex saying that the cup has been grasped
  6. spinal cord carries sensory information to the brain
  7. basal ganglia judge grasp forces, and cerebellum corrects movement errors
  8. sensory cortex receives message that the cup has been grasped
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8
Q

What did Lashley (1951) hypothesize?

A

we perform skilled movements too quickly to rely on feedback about one movement before shaping the next

the time required to receive feedback about each sequence is too long for effective action

argued that movements must be performed as motor sequences, with the next sequence held in readiness while the ongoing one is under way

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9
Q

What is the motor sequence?

A

movement modules are preprogrammed by the brain and produced as a unit

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10
Q

What is the role of the frontal lobe in initiating a motor sequence?

A

frontal lobe regions act hierarchically and in parallel to initiate a behavior

prefrontal cortex, premotor cortex, primary motor cortex

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11
Q

What is the prefrontal cortex?

A

plans complex behavior

top of the hierarchy

makes decisions about behavioral goals to select

PFC damage leads to the inability to suppress inappropriate behaviors

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12
Q

What is the premotor cortex?

A

produces the appropriate complex movement sequences

receives instructions from the PFC

produces movements by coordinating body parts

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13
Q

What is the primary motor cortex?

A

specifies how each movement is to be carried out

specializes in producing focal skilled movements, such as those of the arms, hand, and mouth

people with damage to M1 have difficulty reaching and shaping their fingers to perform various hand grasps

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14
Q

How does the frontal lobe act hierarchically?

A

frontal lobe regions in each hemisphere that plan, coordinate, and execute precise movements are hierarchically related

each region can act with some independence

PFC –> Premotor –> primary motor (M1)

prefrontal cortex instructs premotor cortex to organize the appropriate sequence of behaviors

primary motor cortex executes the movements

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15
Q

What is the parallel organization of the frontal lobe?

A

different sub regions and sub regions and sub-pathways are involved in different aspects of motor behavior

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16
Q

What is the blood flow in the brain associated with simple movement?

A

blood flow increases in hand area of primary somatosensory and primary motor cortex when participants use a finger to push a lever

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17
Q

What is the blood flow in the brain associated with movement sequence?

A

blood flow increases in premotor cortex when participants perform a sequence of movements

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18
Q

What is the blood flow in the brain associated with complex movement?

A

when participants use a finger to find a route through a maze, blood flow also increases in prefrontal, temporal, and parietal cortex

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19
Q

What is the brain stem?

A

organizes many adaptive movements

maintaining posture, standing upright, coordinating movements of the limbs, swimming and walking, grooming the fur, making nests

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20
Q

What is cerebral palsy?

A

disorder primarily of motor function, in which making voluntary movements becomes difficult

caused by brainstem trauma

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21
Q

What is locked-in syndrome?

A

condition in which a patient is aware and awake but cannot move or communicate verbally because of complete paralysis of nearly all voluntary muscles except for the eyes

due to brainstem damage

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22
Q

What is quadriplegia?

A

paralysis and loss of sensation in the legs and arms due to cervical spinal cord injury

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23
Q

What is paraplegia?

A

paralysis and loss of sensation confined to legs and lower body due to spinal cord injury (below cervical nerves)

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24
Q

What can happen when the spinal cord is damaged?

A

spinal reflexes still function even though the spinal cord is cut off from communication with the brain

paralyzed limbs may display spontaneous movements or spasms

the brain can no longer guide the timing of these automatic movements

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25
Q

What is Fritsch and Hitzig discover about the motor cortex?

A

discovered they could electrically stimulate the neocortex of an anesthetized dog to produce movements of the mouth, limbs, and paws on the opposite side of the dog’s body

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26
Q

What did Wilder Penfield discover about the motor cortex?

A

used electrical stimulation to map the cortices of human patients who were about to undergo neurosurgery

confirmed the role of the primary motor cortex in producing movement in humans

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27
Q

What is a homunculus?

A

representation of the human body in the sensory or motor cortex

also any topographical representation of the body by neural area

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28
Q

What is topographic organization?

A

neural spatial representation of the body or areas of the sensory world perceived by a sensory organ

the parts of the motor cortex that control the hands, fingers, lips, and tongue are disproportionately larger than parts of the motor cortex that control other areas

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29
Q

How are movements topographically organized in M1?

A

stimulation of dorsal medial regions produces movements in the lower limbs

stimulation in ventral regions of the cortex produces movements in the upper body, hands, and face

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30
Q

What is the homuncular human?

A

extensive areas of the motor cortex allow precise regulation of the hands, fingers, lips, etc.

areas which we have less motor control have much smaller representation in the motor cortex

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31
Q

What was the early idea regarding the modeling of movement?

A

early idea: each part of the homunculus controls muscles in that part of the body

recent experiments suggest that the motor cortex represents not muscles but rather a repertoire of fundamental movement categories

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32
Q

What are some characteristics of motor cortex neurons?

A

planning and initiating movements: discharge before and during movements

code force of movements: neurons increase their rate and duration of firing in response to heavier weights

on-off neuronal response to code the starting-ending position of movement

movements made to a point in space take into account environmental contingencies

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33
Q

How did Nudo and colleagues (1996) demonstrate the plasticity of the motor cortex?

A

damaged part of motor cortex that controlled the hand in monkeys

without rehabilitation: the hand area of the motor cortex became smaller, whereas the elbow and shoulder area became larger, monkeys lost most ability to move the hand

with rehabilitation: the hand area of the motor cortex retained its size, monkeys retained some ability to move hand

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34
Q

What are the corticospinal tracts?

A

main efferent pathways from the motor cortex to the brainstem to the spinal cord

axons descend into the brainstem, sending collaterals to brainstem nuclei, and eventually emerge on the brainstem’s ventral surface, where they form a large bump on each side (pyramidal tracts)

pyramidal tracts control contralateral and ipsilateral body movements

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35
Q

What are interneurons?

A

are involved in organizing complex movements, such as movements involving many joints

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36
Q

What are motor neurons?

A

control whole-body movements such as walking, jumping, and fractionated movements

carry all NS commands out to the muscles

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37
Q

What is the organization of the motor tract?

A

lateral corticospinal tract synapses with interneurons and motor neurons that innervate muscles of the limbs and digits

interneurons project to motor neurons

motor neurons project to muscles of the body

anterior corticospinal tract synapses with interneurons and motor neurons that innervate the trunk (midline of the body)

the interneurons and motor neurons of the spinal cord are envisioned as a homunculus representing the muscles that they innervate

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38
Q

How are limb muscles arranged in pairs?

A

extensor: moves (extends) the limbs away from the trunk

flexor: moves the limb toward the trunk

connections between interneurons and motor neuros ensure that the muscles work together so that when one muscle contracts, the other relaxes

39
Q

What is the basal ganglia and the force of movement?

A

the neocortex connects extensively with the basal ganglia

the basal ganglia modulates the activity of cortical motor systems

serve a wide range of functions, motivation, emotion, and motor control

40
Q

What are the nuclei that form the basal ganglia?

A

caudate nucleus and putamen (together they form the striatum)

subthalamic nucleus

globus pallidus

41
Q

What are the main basal ganglia connections?

A

all areas of the neocortex project to the basal ganglia

the basal ganglia project to the motor cortex via relays in the thalamus

receives connections from the dopamine cells of the midbrain substantia nigra over the nigrostriatal pathway, also project to the substantia nigra

42
Q

What are hyperkinetic symptoms of basal ganglia damage?

A

damage to the caudate putamen may cause unwanted writhing and twitching movements called dyskinesia, seen in Huntington disease and Tourette syndrome

43
Q

What are hypokinetic symptoms of basal ganglia damage?

A

damage to the basal ganglia may result in a loss of motor ability, leading to rigidity and difficulty initiating and producing movement, seen in Parkinson disease

44
Q

What is the volume control theory of the basal ganglia?

A

basal ganglia can influence movement initiation

the globus pallidus internal acts like a volume control on the motor cortex

if it is turned up, movement is blocked
if it is turned down, movement is allowed

45
Q

What is the direct pathway of control of the globus pallidus?

A

when activated, the globus pallidus internal is inhibited, and the pathway is freed to produce movement

46
Q

What is the indirect pathway of control of the globus pallidus?

A

when activated, the globus pallidus internal is activated and inhibits the thalamus, thus blocking movement

47
Q

What is the flocculus in the cerebellum?

A

small but dense lobe involved in eye movements and balance

48
Q

What are the two hemispheres of the cerebellum?

A

lateral parts: controls movement of limbs, hands, feet, and digits

medial parts: controls movement of face and midline of body

homuncular organization

49
Q

How is does the cerebellum improve the timing of movement control?

A

the cerebellum can time movement through its connections with each region of the neocortex

different regions of the cerebellum participate in the timing of different behaviors, maintaining movement accuracy

50
Q

How is does the cerebellum improve error correction of movement control?

A

compares intended movement with actual movement and makes the necessary adjustments accordingly

51
Q

How does the cerebellum improve movement control?

A

cortex sends motor instructions to the spinal cord

copy of same instructions sent to the cerebellum

sensory receptors code actual movement and report to the cerebellum

cerebellum has information about both version of the movement (what you intended to do and what you actually did) and can calculate the error and tell the cortex how to correct the movement

52
Q

What is the somatosensory system?

A

without sensation, movement would lack direction and would quickly become impaired

the somatosensory system is indispensable for this guidance

it is distributed throughout the body, not localized in the head, as are vision, hearing, taste, and smell, except for the vestibular system (inner ear)

areas with larger numbers of receptors are more sensitive to stimulation than areas with relatively fewer receptors

sensitivity to different somatosensory stimuli is a function of the kinds of receptors

53
Q

What are the two kinds of skin that humans have?

A

hairy skin

glabrous skin: skin that does not have hair follicles, contains large numbers of sensory receptors relative to haired skin

54
Q

What is nociception?

A

perception of pain, temperature, and itch

free nerve ending activated by chemicals

nerve endings secrete peptide chemicals that trigger action potentials

carrying pain/temperature/itch message to CNS

55
Q

What is hapsis?

A

perceive fine touch and pressure and identify objects that we tough and grasp

activated by mechanical stimulation of the hair, tissue, or capsule

56
Q

What is proprioception?

A

body awareness

perception of the location and movement of the body

sensitive to the stretch of muscles and tendons and the movement of joints

57
Q

What are the two things that somatosensory receptors tell us?

A

when a sensory event occurs and whether it is still occuring

58
Q

What is a rapidly adapting receptor?

A

body sensory receptor that responds briefly to the beginning and end of a stimulus on the body

Haptic receptors that respond to touch (Meissner corpuscles),
to fluttering sensations (Pacinian corpuscles),

59
Q

What is a slowly adapting receptor?

A

body sensory receptor that responds as long as sensory stimulus is on the body

Nociceptive receptors that respond to sharp and dull pain
and those that respond to heat/ cold; Merkel’s receptors
(steady skin indentation), hair receptors (flutter or steady skin
indentation), and might be involved in proprioception (Ruffini
corpuscles).

60
Q

What are the posterior root ganglion neurons?

A

the dendrites that carry somatosensory info into the CNS via the spinal cord are adjacent to the spinal cord (in the posterior root ganglia)

the tip of the dendrite is responsive to sensory stimulation

each spinal cord segment has one posterior root ganglion on each side that contains many posterior root ganglion neurons

in the spinal cord, the axons of these neurons may synapse onto other neurons or continue up to the brain

61
Q

What are proprioceptive and haptic neurons?

A

carry information about location and movement (proprioception) and about touch and pressure (hapsis)

large, well-myelinated axons (fast)

62
Q

What are nocioceptive neurons?

A

pain, temperature, and itch information

small axons with little or no myelination (slow)

63
Q

What is deafferentation?

A

loss of incoming sensory input usually due to damage to sensory fibers; also loss of any afferent input to a structure

person can’t feel when their hand is holding an object

leads to severe motor diability

64
Q

What is a disruption of body awareness?

A

movement abnormalities result from selective damage to neurons that carry proprioceptive information

motor system intact, but person spends most day lying prone

65
Q

What are the dual somatosensory pathways to the brain?

A
  1. posterior root ganglion neurons respond to fine touch and pressure; joint, tendon, and muscle change; temperature and itch
  2. after crossing to the contralateral side of the spinal cord, nociceptive nuclei from the anterior spinothalamic tract, which joins the medial lemniscus pathway
  3. posterior column nuclei that relay haptic-proprioceptive sensations ascend the dorsal spinothalamic tract ipsilaterally
  4. in the brainstem, posterior spinothalamic neurons cross to the contralateral pathway, where axons of the medial lemniscus carry information from posterior and anterior tracts to the ventrolateral thalamus
  5. the ventrolateral area of the thalamus relays sensory information to the primary somatosensory cortex
  6. afferent somatosensory information arrives in the primary somatosensory cortex
66
Q

What is the posterior spinothalamic tract?

A

carries haptic and proprioceptive information

axons from the dorsal-root ganglion neurons enter the spinal cord and ascend ipsilaterally, synapsing in the posterior column nuclei (base of the brain)

axons from the posterior column nuclei cross over to the opposite side of the brainstem and project up as part of a pathway called the medial lemniscus

axons synapse in the ventrolateral nucleus of the thalamus, which projects to the somatosensory cortex and motor cortex

each hemisphere perceives the opposite somatosensory side

67
Q

What is the anterior spinothalamic tract?

A

carries nociceptive (pain, temperature, etc.)

axons from the dorsal-root ganglion neurons enter the spinal cord and cross over, synapsing onto neurons on the contralateral side

axons from the contralateral spinal cord ascend where they join other axons forming medial lemniscus, synapsing with neurons in the ventrolateral nucleus of the thalamus

neurons from the thalamus then project to the somatosensory cortex

68
Q

What are the effects of unilateral somatosensory system damage?

A

unilateral damage dissociates the functions of the two somatosensory pathways

haptic-proprioceptive and nociceptive

69
Q

What are spinal reflexes?

A

somatosensory neurons participate in behaviors mediated by the spinal cord and brainstem

spinal cord somatosensory axons make synapses with interneurons and motor neurons on both sides of the spinal cord

the circuits made between sensory neurons and muscles through these connections mediate spinal relflexes

70
Q

How is pain a fact of life?

A

30% of visits to physicians are for pain symptoms, as are 50% of emergency room visits

living with pain increases as people age

71
Q

How is pain necessary?

A

a person born without pain receptors experiences body deformities through failure to adjust posture and acute injuries through failure to avoid harmful situations

72
Q

How do people perceive pain?

A

pain perception results from synthesizing a plethora of sensory information

there may be as many as eight kinds of pain fibers, judging from the peptides and other chemicals released by these nerves when irritated or damaged

haptic information contributes to pain perception as people can accurately report the location and characteristics of various kinds of pain

but in the absence of fine-touch and pressure information, pain is more difficult to identify and localize

73
Q

What is the main pain pathway to the brain?

A

the anterior spinothalamic tract

cannot simply treat pain by severing the anterior spinothalamic pathway

74
Q

What are the other pathways that carry pain information from the spinal cord to the brain?

A

reticular formation: associated with arousal

amygdala: associated with emotional responses

hypothalamus: associated with hormonal and cardiovascular responses

75
Q

What is the gate theory of pain?

A

activities in different sensory pathways play off against each other

this can determine whether and how much pain is perceived as a result of an injury

haptic-proprioceptive stimulation can reduce pain perception, whereas the absence of such stimulation can increase pain perception through interactions at a pain gate

76
Q

What is an example of treating pain with the gate theory?

A

when you stub your toe, you feel pain because the pain pathway to the brain is open

rubbing the toe activates the haptic-proprioceptive pathway and reduced the flow of information in the pain pathway because the pain gate partly closes, relieving the pain sensation

massage, acupuncture, and immersion in warm water may produce pain-relieving effects by selectively activating haptic and proprioceptive fibers to close the pain gate

77
Q

How does the gate theory and opiates work in treating pain?

A

the interneuron uses an endogenous opiate as an inhibitory neurotransmitter

opioids relieve pain by mimicking the actions of the endogenous opioid transmitter in the neuron

electrical stimulation at a number of sites in the brainstem can reduce pain, perhaps by closing brainstem pain gates

perceptions might be lessened through descending pathways from the forebrain and the brainstem to the spinal-cord pain gate

78
Q

What is periaqueductal gray matter?

A

electrical stimulation of the PAG suppresses pain

PAG neurons produce their pain-suppressing effect by exciting pathways in the brainstem that project to the spinal cord where they inhibit neurons that form the ascending pain pathways

79
Q

What is referred pain?

A

neurons in the spinal cord that relay pain and temperature message to the brain receive two sets of signals, from body’s surface and from internal organs

spinal cord cannot distinguish these signals

body organ pain is felt as referred (at the body surface)

80
Q

What is the vestibular system?

A

the only localized part of the somatosensory system

81
Q

What does the vestibular organ in each ear contain?

A

three semicircular canals, head rotatory movements

otolith organs (utricle and saccule), gravity and acceleration

82
Q

Wat are the two functions of the vestibular organs?

A

tell the position of the body in relation to gravity

signal changes in the direction and speed to head movements

83
Q

How does the vestibular system sense the movement of the head?

A

when the head moves, fluid (endolymph) located within the semicircular canals pushes against hair cells

bending of cilia leads to receptor potentials in the hair cells and action potentials in the cells forming the vestibular nerve

the direction in which the cilia are bent determines whether the hair cell becomes depolarized or hyperpolarized

84
Q

What is vertigo?

A

from the Latin for “spinning”

sensation of spinning when one is not moving

dysfunction of the inner ear

one intoxicating effect of alcohol is vertigo

85
Q

What is Meniere disease?

A

disorder of the inner ear resulting in vertigo and loss of balance

86
Q

What is the primary somatosensory cortex?

A

receives projections from the thalamus

Brodmann areas 3-1-2

begins the process of constructing perceptions from somatosensory information

87
Q

What is the secondary somatosensory cortex (SII)?

A

located behind the primary somatosensory cortex

Brodmann’s areas 5 and 7

refines the construction of perceptions, projects to the frontal cortex

receives somatosensory information from the S1, visual cortex, and auditory cortex

the connections between the somatosensory cortex and motor cortex suggest that movement beings in the somatosensory cortex

88
Q

What is the somatosensory homunculus?

A

the sensory homunculus looks nearly identical to the motor homunculus

recent work suggests that there are four separate somatosensory homunculi

Area 3a: muscles
Area 3b: skin (slow)
Area 1: skin (fast)
Area 2: joints, pressure

89
Q

What does damage to the primary somatosensory cortex impair?

A

sensory thresholds, proprioception, hapsis (ability to identify objects by touch), and simple movements (e.g. reaching and grasping)

as with the motor cortex, reorganization following damage is possible

90
Q

What is the relationship between the somatosensory cortex and complex movement?

A

the somatosensory cortex plays an important role in confirming that movements have taken place

damage does not disrupt plans for making movements but does disrupt how the movements are performed, leaving their execution fragmented and confused

91
Q

What is apraxia?

A

inability to complete a plan of action accurately, to make a voluntary movement

92
Q

How does the somatosensory cortex interact with the dorsal visual stream?

A

the dorsal visual stream projects to the secondary somatosensory cortex and then to the frontal cortex

visual information is integrated with somatosensory information to produce unconscious movements

93
Q

How does the somatosensory cortex interact with the ventral visual stream?

A

the secondary somatosensory cortex interacts with the ventral stream by providing conscious haptic information about the identity of objects and completed movements

PSYCH 275 (11 decks)

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