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Biology Module 2 Foundations In Biology > Chapter 6 Cell Division > Flashcards

Chapter 6 Cell Division Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the main stages of the cell cycle?

A

The interphase
Mitosis
Cytokinesis

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2
Q

What are the three stages within the interphase?

A

The first growth stage G1
The synthesis stage
The second growth stage G2

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3
Q

What are the cells said to be at during the interphase?

A

The cell is said to be at ‘rest’ because the cell is not actively dividing.

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4
Q

What activities occur during the interphase?

A

DNA is replicated and checked for errors
Protein synthesis
Mitochondria and chloroplasts grow and divide
Normal metabolic processes of cells occur- including cell respiration

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5
Q

What happens during the first growth stage- G1- of the interphase?

A

The cell increases in size and proteins from which organelles are synthesised are produced so organelles can replicate.

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6
Q

What happens during the synthesis stage- S- of the interphase?

A

Chromosomes are duplicated in the nucleus

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7
Q

What happens during the second growth stage - G2- of the interphase?

A

The cell continues to increase in size, energy stores are increased and the duplicated chromosomes are checked for errors, making repairs if necessary.

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8
Q

What is the G0 stage?

A

This is when the cell leaves the cycle either temporarily or permanently.

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9
Q

Why might a cell enter the G0 stage?

A

Differentiation- if the cell need to become specialised for a particular function, it is no longer able to divide. It will carry out its function indefinitely and not enter the cell cycle again.

If the DNA of a cell becomes damaged. A damaged cell can no longer divide so they need to be removed. A normal cell can only divide a number of times before it becomes senescent.

As you age, the number of senescent cells (process of deformation with age) in your body increases. Growing number of these cells has been linked to cancer and arthritis.

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10
Q

What are checkpoints used for in the cell cycle?

A

They are the control mechanisms of the cell cycle. They monitor and verify whether the processes at each phase of the cell cycle have been accurately completed before the cell is allowed to progress into the next stage.

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11
Q

Where are the checkpoints situated within the cell cycle?

A

There are three checkpoints:
G1- checkpoint= This is at the end of the G1 phase, before entry into S phase. If the cell does not satisfy the requirements the cell enters the G0 stage.

G2-checkpoint = At the end of the G2 phase before the start of the mitotic stage

Spindle assembly checkpoint (metaphase checkpoint)- this occurs at the point of mitosis where all the chromosomes should be attached to spindles

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12
Q

What does the G1 checkpoint check for?

A

The G1 checks for:
Cell size
Nutrients
Growth factors
DNA damage

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13
Q

What does the G2 checkpoint check for?

A

The G2 checkpoint checks for:
DNA damage
Cell size
If the DNA has replicated without error

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14
Q

What does the spindle assembly checkpoint (metaphase) check for?

A

Chromosome attachment to the spindle

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15
Q

What are the stages of Mitosis?

A

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

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16
Q

What is the difference between mitosis and cytokinesis?

A

Mitosis is the process of replication and dividing the genome.
Cytokinesis is the division of the cell membrane and cytoplasm to form genetically identical daughter cells.

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17
Q

What is mitosis?

A

The process of nuclear division that occurs before a cell physically divides in two.

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18
Q

What is mitosis used for?

A

Mitosis is used for repairing tissues and cell growth
It is the basis of asexual reproduction

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19
Q

What is the structure of a chromosome?

A

Each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined together somewhere along its length at the centromere.
Genetic information carried on the chromatid is identical

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20
Q

When are chromosomes visible?

A

Chromosomes are only visible during cell division.

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21
Q

What happens during the Early Prophase?

A

Chromosomes become more distinct
They:
-Condense
-Coil up
-Shorten
-Thicken
-Take up stain more intensely
The centriole divides

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22
Q

What happens during the Late Prophase?

A

The centrioles migrate to opposite poles of the cell
The nucleolus continues to shrink and disappear
The nuclear envelope disintegrates.

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23
Q

What happens during the Metaphase?

A

The centrioles are positioned at opposite poles
Spindle fibres attach to the centromere of the chromosomes
Each centromere is attached to both of the centrioles at opposite poles by spindle fibres
The spindle fibres will then contract and shorten to move the chromosomes to the metaphase plate or equator (middle)

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24
Q

Where are Spindle Fibres produced?

A

Centriole

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25
Q

What happens during the Anaphase?

A

Spindle Fibres contract
The Centromere divides
Chromatids (daughter chromosomes) move to opposite poles of the cell
The Centromere is pulled first
Each half of the cell receives one chromatid from each Chromosome

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26
Q

What happens during the Telophase?

A

Chromatids reach the poles of the spindle- now known as chromosomes
They begin to uncoil
They become less distinct
Nuclear envelope starts to reform

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27
Q

What happens during Cytokinesis?

A

The cytoplasm and cell membrane split into two genetically identical cells

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28
Q

What happens during Cytokinesis in animal cells?

A

In animals, a cleavage furrow forms in the middle of the cell and the cytoskeleton causes the cell membrane to draw inwards until the cell splits into two.

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29
Q

What happens during Cytokinesis in plant cells?

A

In plant cells, the cell membrane splits into two new cells due to the fusing of vesicles from the Golgi Apparatus. The cell wall forms new sections around the membrane to complete the division into two cells.

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30
Q

What is the difference between a haploid cell and a diploid cell?

A

A haploid cell has 23 chromosomes, while a diploid cell has 46 chromosomes.

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31
Q

What type of cell is a gamete?

A

A haploid cell

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32
Q

What type of cell is a Somantic cell (body cell)?

A

Somantic cells are diploid cells

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33
Q

How are the stages of Meiosis split?

A

Meiosis I- introduces genetic variation by randomly dividing the cells genes in two, this results in 2 haploid cells.
Meiosis II- The second division, seperating the pairs of chromatids present in each daughter cell resulting in four haploid cells.

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34
Q

What are the stages of Meiosis I?

A

Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I

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35
Q

What are the stages of Meiosis II?

A

Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II

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36
Q

What happens during Prophase I?

A

Chromosomes condense
Nuclear envelope disintegrates
Spindle fibres form
Homologous chromosomes pair up forming bivalents
Crossing over occurs

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37
Q

What is the process of crossing over?

A

Chromatids of homologous chromosomes twist over each other, some of the genes will break off and attach to the opposite maternal or paternal chromosome. The gene(s) which break off have to be exactly the same.

38
Q

What happens during Metaphase I?

A

Chromosomes align on the equator of the cell
Spindle Fibres attach to the centromeres
Independent assortment occurs:
This is where the position of each bivalent is independent of all other chromosomes
The maternal and paternal chromosomes can be on either side of the equator

39
Q

What happens during Anaphase I?

A

Spindle Fibres of the Homologous chromosomes contract moving them to the poles.
chromatids of each homologue are not pulled apart

40
Q

What happens during Telophase I?

A

The nuclear envelope reforms
Chromosomes uncoil
The cells will then undergo Cytokinesis
Resulting in two haploid cells

41
Q

What happens during Prophase II?

A

Chromosomes re condense
Nuclear envelope breaks down again
Spindle Fibres reform

42
Q

What happens during Metaphase II?

A

Chromosomes align on the equator by the contraction of spindle fibres
Independent assortiment occurs again
More genetic variation is caused

43
Q

What happens during Anaphase II?

A

Centromere divides
Spindle fibres contract moving the Chromatids to opposite poles of the cells

44
Q

What happens during Telophase II?

A

Chromosomes uncoil
Nuclear envelope reforms
The cell undergoes Cytokinesis
As a result 4 haploid daughter cells are produced

45
Q

What are stem cells?

A

Undifferentiated cells which have not yet adapted to any particular function, they have the potential to become any specialised cell in the body.

46
Q

What are stems cells used for?

A

Stem cells are the source of all new cells necessary for growth, development and repair.

47
Q

What happens to the stem cell once it has become specialised?

A

The stem cell will lose the ability to divide, entering the G0 phase of the cell cycle.

48
Q

Why does the repeated cell division of stem cells need to be strictly controlled?

A

Stem cells undergo repeated cell division which has to be controlled
If the division occurs too slowly than tissues are not efficiently being replaced
However, too fast and it can lead to uncontrollable cell division which can then form masses of cells known as tumours.

49
Q

What is potency?

A

Potency is the stem cells ability to differentiate into different tissue types

50
Q

What are the different stem cell types?

A

Totipotent
Pluripotent
Multipotent

51
Q

What are Totipotent stem cells?

A

Totipotent stem cells can differentiate into any cell type, including extra embryonic tissues (amnion, umbilicus, placenta) They are present in the fertilised egg, zygote and the cells of the first few mitosis divisions.

52
Q

What are Pluripotent Stem cells?

A

Pluripotent Stem cells form all types of tissue but not whole organisms.They are present in early embryos and are the origin of different types of tissue.

53
Q

What are Multipotent Stem cells?

A

Multipotent stem cells can form cells within a certain tissue type. For example, Haematopoetic stem cells in bone marrow produce blood cells.

54
Q

Where are all blood cells derived from?

A

Bone marrow

55
Q

Where can animals stem cells be sourced?

A

Embryonic Stem cells
Tissue (adult) stem cells

56
Q

What are Embryonic stem cells?

A

Totipotent stem cells from an early embryo or pluripotent stem cells from blastocysts.

57
Q

What are tissue (adult) stem cells?

A

Multipotent stem cells present throughout life in tissues (they can be found in specific areas such as the skin, bone marrow, blood vessels, liver but not in the pancreas or spinal cord)

58
Q

Why are Tissue (adult) stem cells useful?

A

Recent research and growing evidence suggests that they can be artificially triggered to become pluripotent. They can also be sourced and harvested easily from the umbilical cords of newborn babies and stored for life.

59
Q

Where are stem cells sourced in plants?

A

Plant stem cells are present in the meristematic tissue (meristems) .
This meristematic tissue (vascular cambium) is located between the phloem and xylem in vascular bundles and differentiates into both types of tissue so vascular tissue grows with the plant.
Undifferentiated cells form at the meristems- roots and shoots

60
Q

What type of stem cells do plants have?

A

Pluripotent stem cells (remain pluripotent throughout life)

61
Q

What is Meristematic tissue known as?

A

Vascular cambium

62
Q

What is the lifespan of Mammalian Erythrocytes?

A

Mammalian Erythrocytes have a lifespan to around 120 days- so they have to be replaced constantly.

63
Q

What is the lifespan of Neutrophils?

A

Neutrophiles only have a lifespan of 6 hours which means they need to be constantly replenished.

64
Q

What are the different types of Animal Tissue?

A

Nervous tissue
Epithelial tissue
Muscle tissue
Connective tissue

65
Q

What is the function of Nervous Tissue?

A

Transmits electrical impulses

66
Q

What is the function of Epithelial tissue?

A

Covers internal and external body surfaces

67
Q

What is the function of Muscle tissue?

A

Can contract for movement

68
Q

What is the function of connective tissue?

A

Hold other tissues together

69
Q

What are the different types of Plant tissues?

A

Epidermis tissue
Vascular tissue

70
Q

What is the function of Epidermis tissue?

A

Cover plant surfaces

71
Q

What is the function of Vascular tissue?

A

For transport

72
Q

What could Stem cells be used to treat?

A

Diabetes
Alzheimers
Parkinson’s
Macular degeneration
Paralysis
Birth defects
Heart disease

73
Q

What are stem cells used to treat?

A

Treatment of burns- new skin on mesh is grown from skin cells
Drug trials- initial testing on stem cells before animal and human testing
Developmental biology- allow research into how organisms grow and develop and why things go wrong

74
Q

What are Erthrocytes and how are they adapted?

A

Red Blood Cells.
They contains flattened bioconcave shape which increases their surface area to volume ratio
In mammals, they don’t have nuclei or many organelles which increases the space available for haemoglobin
Flexible so it can fit through narrow capillaries

75
Q

What are Neutrophils and how are they adapted?

A

White Blood Cells- they have an essential role in the immune system.
Multi-lobed nucleus so its easier to fit through small spaces to reach the site of infection
Granular cytoplasm contains many lysosomes which contain enzymes used to attack pathogens

76
Q

What is the sperm cell and how is it adapted?

A

The sperm cell is a male gamete which delivers genetic information to the female gamete.
Contains a Flagellum so its is capable of movement
Contains many mitochondria which supplies the energy needed to move
Contains an acrosome on its head which has digestive enzymes which digest the layers around the ovum (egg)

77
Q

What are the specialised cells of Plants?

A

Palisade Cells
Root Hair Cells
Guard Cells

78
Q

What are Palisade Cells and how are they adapted?

A

Palisade cells are present is the mesophyll
They contain Chloroplasts which can move in the cytoplasm to absorb more light and carry out photosynthesis.
Is a rectangular box shape so it can be closely packed to form a continuous layer
Thin cell walls so it can increase the rate of diffusion of Carbon dioxide
Have a large Vacuole to maintain turgor pressure

79
Q

What are Root Hair Cells and how are they adapted?

A

Root hair cells are present at the surfaces of roots near the growing tips.
They have Root hairs which increase the surface area of the cell
Therefore, maximising water and mineral uptake

80
Q

What are Guard Cell pairs and how are they adapted?

A

Pairs of Guard cells form small opening called stomata which allow CO2 to enter for photosynthesis
When they lose water they become less swollen so they change shape and the stoma closes preventing further water loss
The cell wall is thicker on one side so the cell doesn’t change shape symmetrically as its volume changes.

81
Q

What are the specialised animal tissues?

A

Squamous Epithelium
Ciliated Epithelium
Cartilage
Muscle

82
Q

What is Squamous Epithelium and how is it adapted?

A

Made up of specialised squamous epithelial cells.
Very thin- due to the flat cells that it is made up of and it is only 1 cell thick
Present when rapid diffusion is essential- forming lining of the lungs to allow the rapid diffusion of oxygen

83
Q

What is Ciliated Epithelium and how is it adapted?

A

Made from Ciliated Epithelial cells.
The cells have ‘hair like’ structures cellared cilia on one surface which moves in a rhythmic manner
Eg, This tissue lines the trachea sweeping mucus away from the lungs
Goblet cells are also present, releasing mucus to trap unwanted particles present in the air.

84
Q

What is Cartilage and how is it adapted?

A

Cartilage is a connective tissue.
It contains fibres of the proteins elastin and collagen
It is firm, flexible connective tissue made up of Chondrocyte Cells embedded in an extra cellular matrix.
Cartilage prevents the ends of bone rubbing and causing damage.

85
Q

What is Muscle and how is it adapted?

A

Muscle is a tissue that is able to contract in order to move bones.
There are different muscle fibres:
Skeletal muscle fibres (muscle attached to bone) contain myofibrils which contain contractile proteins.

86
Q

What are the specialised plant tissues?

A

Epidermis
Xylem
Phloem

87
Q

What is the Epidermis and how is it adapted?

A

The epidermis is a single layer of closely packed cells covering plant surfaces.
Covered by a waxy, waterproof cuticle tor reduce loss of water
Stomata are present in the epidermis , they allow Carbon dioxide, Water vapour and Oxygen to diffuse in and out.

88
Q

What is the Xylem and how is it adapted?

A

The xylem is a vascular tissue responsible for the transport of water and minerals
The tissue is composed of vessel elements, which are elongated dead cells
Walls of these cells are strengthened with lignin (waterproof material) providing structural support for cells.

89
Q

What is the Phloem tissue and how is it adapted?

A

Vascular tissue responsible for the transport of organic nutrients (like sucrose) from leaves and stems where it is made by photosynthesis to the parts of the plant where needed.
It is composed of columns of sieve tube cells separated by perforated walls called sieve plates

90
Q

What are alleles?

A

Different versions of the same gene (gene variants). The different alleles of a gene will all have the same locus (position on a particular chromosome)

91
Q

What is independent assortment?

A

This is where the position of each bivalent is independent of all other chromosomes
The maternal and paternal chromosomes can be on either side of the equator

92
Q

What is the equation for the Mitotic Index?

A

MI = number of cells with condensed chromosomes
———————————————— x100
Total number of cells

Biology Module 2 Foundations In Biology (7 decks)

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