Chapter 6

Question 1

Classical Conditioning is learning by associating two stimuli.

Acquisition

Answer 1

The 1st phase where a new response is being formed. It happens when a conditioned stimulus (CS), like the sound of a metronome, is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US), such as food. Over time, the person or animal learns to respond to the metronome alone, just as they would to the food.

Question 2

Classical Conditioning is learning by associating two stimuli.

Extinction:

Answer 2

The conditioned response fades when the Conditioned Stimulus and Unconditioned Stimulus are no longer paired, like when the metronome is presented without food, leading to less salivation.

Question 3

Stimulus Generalization

Answer 3

When an organism responds to a stimulus similar to the original one. For example, a dog may salivate to tones similar to the original metronome tone that was paired with food.

Question 4

Stimulus Discrimination

Answer 4

When the organism learns to respond only to the original stimulus and not to other similar stimuli. For instance, the dog will only salivate to the specific metronome tone that produces food, not to other tones.

Question 5

Little Albert Experiment - John Watson

Answer 5

1. Albert is presented with a white rat : no fear
2. Albert is near white rat +loud steel hammer: fear
3. With repeated pairings: unconditioned stimulus
   - Albert fears white rat
   Neutral stimulus: white rat

Question 6

Label what these type of responses are
Is it a stimulus or response:
- Smell, hear, see:
- Salivating, emotion:

Answer 6

Smell, hear, see: stimulus
Salivating, emotion: response

Question 7

Unconditioned stimulus:
Neutral stimulus:
Conditioned stimulus:
Conditioned response:

Answer 7

US:Something that naturally triggers a response without any prior learning. For example, the smell of food makes you hungry automatically.

Neutral Stimulus (NS):
A stimulus that does not cause any response initially. For instance, the sound of a bell may not mean anything at first.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS):
After being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and can trigger a response. For example, if the sound of a bell is paired with the smell of food, it becomes a conditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Response (CR):
The learned reaction to the conditioned stimulus. It happens because the organism has learned to associate the conditioned stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus. For example, feeling hungry when hearing the bell.

Question 8

Conditioned Emotional Responses

Preparedness:

Answer 8

conditioned emotional responses that involve any learned emotional reaction, depending on the experiences and associations formed.

Happiness: For instance, hearing a particular song repeatedly associated with happy events can evoke feelings of joy when you hear that song again.
Sadness: A certain scent or place associated with a sad memory can trigger feelings of sadness.
Anger: If a specific situation is consistently paired with frustration, encountering that situation again can evoke anger.

Question 9

Differences to classical conditioning

Operant Conditioning:

Answer 9

Operant Conditioning is a type of learning where behavior is shaped by its consequences. In this process:

We repeat behaviors that lead to rewards (e.g., putting money in a vending machine to get candy).
We avoid behaviors that result in punishment.

Difference from Classical Conditioning:
In contrast, Classical Conditioning deals with reflexive or automatic responses that happen without conscious choice, such as salivating when smelling food.

In short, operant conditioning is about learning from the consequences of actions, while classical conditioning is about associating two stimuli to trigger a response.

Question 10

Processes of Operant Conditioning

Answer 10

Reinforcement: encourages the behavior to happen again.

Types of Reinforcement:

Positive Reinforcement:
adding something pleasant after a behavior to increase the likelihood of it happening again.
Example: Giving a child ice cream after they eat their vegetables to encourage them to eat veggies more often.

Negative Reinforcement:
removing something unpleasant after a behavior to increase the likelihood of it being repeated.
Example: Turning off a loud alarm when you get out of bed encourages you to get up more quickly.

Question 11

Processes of Operant Conditioning
Positive Punishment

Answer 11

Adding something unpleasant to decrease a behavior.

Example: Getting a speeding ticket (added punishment).
Result: You’re less likely to speed in the future.
In this case, something is given (a punishment) to reduce the behavior.

Question 12

Negative Punishment:

Answer 12

Negative Punishment: Removing something desirable to decrease a behavior.

Example: A parent takes away an iPad after a child hits their sibling.
Result: The child is less likely to hit again.
In this case, something is taken away to reduce the behavior.

Question 13

Negative reinforcement

Answer 13

Negative Reinforcement:
Removes something unpleasant to increase the likelihood of a behavior.
Example: Stopping a loud alarm when you get out of bed. The removal of the unpleasant sound encourages you to get up.

Question 14

Applications of Operant Conditioning:
Shaping

Answer 14

Shaping: A method of training by reinforcing small steps (successive approximations) toward a final goal behavior.

Example: Teaching a child to ride a bike by first rewarding them for sitting on the bike, then for pedaling, and eventually for riding it.
Each simpler behavior that gets closer to the desired skill is reinforced until the full behavior is learned.

Question 15

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA):

Answer 15

A method that uses close observation, prompting, and reinforcement to teach behaviors.

It’s commonly used to help individuals with developmental disabilities learn new skills and manage symptoms.
ABA focuses on shaping positive behaviors through consistent reinforcement and guidance.

Question 16

Primary Reinforcers:

Answer 16

Primary Reinforcers: Stimuli that satisfy basic needs, such as food, water, and shelter. These are naturally reinforcing without needing to be learned.

Question 17

Secondary Reinforcers:

Answer 17

Stimuli that gain their value through learning and association, like money or tokens, which can be exchanged for primary reinforcers or other rewards.

Question 18

Nucleus Accumbens

Answer 18

The brain’s reward center, involved in pleasure and reinforcement, not necessarily tied to monetary rewards.

Question 19

Schedules of Reinforcement:

Answer 19

Continuous Reinforcement: Every behavior is reinforced, like when a vending machine gives candy every time you put in money.
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Reinforcement occurs only after a certain number of responses or a specific amount of time, such as giving a child a break every 10 minutes.

Question 20

Four Types of Reinforcement Schedules:

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Answer 20

Reinforcement is given after a specific number of responses.

Example: A rat must press a lever 10 times to get food.

Question 21

Four Types of Reinforcement Schedules:

Variable-Ratio Schedule:

Answer 21

The number of responses needed for reinforcement changes, based on an average.

Example: Slot machines—rewards come after an unpredictable number of tries.

Question 22

Four Types of Reinforcement Schedules:

Fixed-Interval Schedule:

Answer 22

Reinforcement occurs after a set amount of time passes.

Example: A child gets a break every 10 minutes.

Question 23

Four Types of Reinforcement Schedules:

Variable-Interval Schedule

Answer 23

The first response is reinforced after a variable amount of time.

Example: At a restaurant, you might get your food in 10 minutes one day and 20 minutes the next.

Question 24

remember

Answer 24

Ratio schedules depend on the number of responses.
Interval schedules depend on the amount of time.
Fixed schedules follow a set rule, while Variable schedules vary.

Question 25

Latent Learning

Answer 25

Proposed by Edward Tolman, latent learning is when learning occurs but is not immediately shown until there is reinforcement.
The organism learns but doesn’t display the learned behavior until rewarded or motivated to do so.

Question 26

Observational Learning:

and

4 key elements

Answer 26

Four Key Elements:

Attention:
You need to pay attention to the behavior being observed in order to learn it.

Memory:
You must be able to remember what you observed to later perform the behavior.

Motor Reproduction:
You need the physical ability to actually perform the behavior you observed.

Motivation:
You must have a reason or desire to reproduce the behavior, such as expecting a reward.

Observational Learning is a type of learning where behavior or knowledge changes as a result of watching others. Instead of learning through direct experience, we learn by observing what others do and the consequences of their actions.