Chapter 5: Social Development

Question 1

Define intimacy

Answer 1

Which means establishing closeness with another person which develops from self disclosure the process by which one shares their thoughts feelings and experience with another

Question 2

What is a genital relationship

Answer 2

Relationship based on sexual intimacy without emotional intimacy

Question 3

How is loved defined

Answer 3

Aristotle defined love as being composed of a single soul inhabiting 2 bodies.

Mature love says I need you because I love you Erich Fromm

Question 4

Discuss the assortive mating Theory

Answer 4

Views choosing a love partner based on Similar characteristics which occurs in many dimensions like religious beliefs physical traits age socio-economic status intelligence and political ideology

Personality related characteristics play an important role later in relationship which requires coordination with tasks issues and problems of daily living

Question 5

Define attachment

Answer 5

It is a strong affectional tie that binds people together

Question 6

What is the attachment theory proposed by John Bowlby

Answer 6

The assumption of attachment theory is that people construct internal working models Which are representations of themselves and others which guide processing of social info and behavior in relationships

Question 7

Discuss the internal working model theory

Answer 7

Secure internal working model individual feel good about themselves and others

Preoccupied internal models have a positive view of others but feel unlovable. They seek closeness to others to validate their self worth but are highly fearful of abandonment and become overly dependent on their partners

Dismissing internal working model have positive view of self but lack trust dismissing the importance of close relationship and keep partners at distance.

Fearful internal working model have a negative of themselves and of others displaying confusing unpredictable mix of neediness and fear of closeness

Question 8

The presence or absence of the 3 components of triangular model of love can lead to what

Answer 8

Liking: includes intimacy where passion and commitment are absent

Infatuation: based on passion but intimacy and commitment lacks

Empty love: based on commitment but lacking passion and intimacy

Romantic love: includes passion and intimacy without commitment

Fatuous love: based on passion and commitment without intimacy

Companionate love: characterised by intimacy and commitment without passion

Consumate love: has commitment passion and intimacy

Question 9

Explain the equity theory

Answer 9

Suggests that close relationship or romances are formed because the people involved believe that what they are getting out of the relationship is proportional to what they put in. It assumes people count the costs involved.

Question 10

Discuss Robert’s Sternberg triangular theory of love

Answer 10

He suggested that love is complex and doesn’t occur in a single form but consists of 3 components mainly passion intimacy and commitment

Passion is characterized by intense emotions felt towards another. Is characterized by infatuation referring to state of being completely carried away by unreasoning passion creating feelings of excitement ecstasy and euphoria along with uncertainty anxiety and jealousy

Intimacy refers to developmental of reciprocal trust openness and acceptance

Commitment is a conscious decision to maintain love care and support each other

Question 11

What characteristics do securely attached adults have

Answer 11

• More supportive of partner
• More likely to practice safe sex
• Less upset when under stress
• More likely to seek support
• More likely to compromise in conflict
• Less likely to be depressed
• More likely to have good self esteem
• less likely to abuse spouse
• Less likely to divorce

Question 12

What is a social network

Answer 12

It is an extended group of people who share the same interests and Interact with each other for mutual support assistance and exchange of info.

It refers to the structural characteristics of an individual’s social relationships including size stability type of relationship and frequency of contact with people who are part of it.

Question 13

What are the advantages of social networks

What are the disadvantages of social networks

Answer 13

Provide support such as financial emotional and expressive support

Members tend to be physically healthier and experience greater psychological well-being

Conflict

Question 14

What is the social convoy model

Answer 14

Based on social role and attachment theory where each person moves through life surrounded by convoy of people who play a central role in network of social relationships support and guidance.

Question 15

State the social exchange theory

Answer 15

Proposes that Social behavior is the result of an exchange process suggesting people evaluate rewards and risks of each relationship either consciously or subconsciously.

The rewards refers to positive values like sense of acceptance support and companionship

The risks refers to negative values like disapproval and forms of punishment.

Question 16

Expand on the forms of reciprocity

Answer 16

Direct reciprocity refers to returning same type of support within a limited period

Indirect reciprocity occurs when support is returned through an intermediate party

Generalised reciprocity occurs when network members give support without expecting it to be necessarily returned in same proportion of same people.

Question 17

What is the socio-emotional selectivity theory

Answer 17

Social contact is motivated by info seeking and emotional regulation which shift as one goes through life.

During young adult info seeking occurs by exploring the world gathering info about cares interests and trying to determine where one belongs

For older adults emotional regulation become the main goal where quantity of relationship decrease but the quality remains stable

Question 18

Discuss the social capital Theory

Answer 18

The members of one’s family and social group is called social capital and refer to the set of intangible resources in family and community that helps people with stress developes potential take opportunity and express aspirations beyond immediate context

Decision to invest or not in relationship is partially based on present costs and possible future benefits. People leave relationship that are high cost and low benefits

Question 19

Elaborate on social networks in cyberspace

Answer 19

Due to technology people find themselves in the real and vertual world.

This may help people to communicate with family and friends and meet new people

Loneliness and depression can be alliviated as it provides communication with others

Helps escape from problem

It can help improve critical thinking skills creativity and self esteem

Question 20

Define civil marriage

Answer 20

A legally recognized union between a man and a woman

Question 21

Explain a customary marriage

Answer 21

The spouses are married in accordance with the indigenous traditions and customs

Question 22

What is a religious marriage

Answer 22

One that takes place in terms of religious requirements

Question 23

What is civil union

Answer 23

It is a specific form of marriage also called a legalised partnership where couple have the same Marital rights responsibility and consequences as in a civil marriage

Question 24

What possible causes are there for a decline in marriages in SA

Answer 24

A new broad minded way of thinking has developed where marriage is losing status and referred to a piece of paper

Marriage has lost status in law as legal reforms have led to greater recognition of equality and neutrality in issues of common law marriage cohabitation and child care/ custody

Marriage has significant financial implications eg labola

As more occupational and educational opportunities become available women become more career orientated regarding this as more important than marriage

Question 25

Discuss the importance of labola in traditional African marriage

Answer 25

Labola can be regarded as a social symbol with spiritual links to unite 2 families and is accepted as a culturally legal and valid union and marriage

It serves as compensation

Question 26

What is meant by interracial intercultural or intergroup marriage

Answer 26

It is a form of marriage outside a specific social group involving spouses who belong to different socially defined or racial ethnicities.

Question 27

What is same sex marriage

Answer 27

Refers to the matrimonial union of individuals who are of the same biological sex.

Question 28

What are the possible advantages of marriage

Answer 28

Married people generally seem more physically and psychologically healthy than those seperated divorced single or widowed.

Married people tend to live longer

Marriage provides source of intimacy friendship love sexual fulfillment companionship and emotional support

Marriage offers opportunities to grow emotionally through bond stronger and more mutual than sibling bond friendship

Marriage brings economic and financial advantages

Marriage is generally regarded as best environment to raise children

Question 29

State the 7 type of marital relationship

Answer 29

The vitalised relationship: where both partners experience a high degree of satisfaction regarding all aspects of marriage

The financially focused relationship where partners bound by material and financial goals also experienced dissatisfaction in other aspects of marriage

Conflicted relationship where partners experience dissatisfaction with issues relating to the partners themselves but are satisfied with external aspects like leisure time activities

The harmonious relationship is characterized by satisfaction with personal aspects relating to partner but less satisfaction with external aspects like leisure time activities

The traditional relationship is where partners experience stress in relationship but a great deal of satisfaction regarding family and religious values

The balanced relationship where partners are generally satisfied with most aspects of marriage regardless of certain problem at time.

Question 30

What factors may contribute to a successful marriage?

Answer 30

Age and maturity of partners:

Similarity: partners sharing similar interests attitudes and goals. Similar socio economic religion ethnicity race and age group.

Marital equity: which is the extent to which couples experience equality in the relationship.

Effective interaction: enjoying eachother liking eachother having respect and trust for eachother. Good communication where thoughts feelings ideas wishes are shared

Personality: positive personality characteristics like self confidence maturity self concept and ability to be nurturing

Sexual intimacy: sexual behaviour and satisfaction remain important during the adult life span and plays a significant role in happiness

Question 31

What is the upswing hypothesis of Marital satisfaction

Answer 31

Level of marital satisfaction high in years after marriage and before first child is born following a decline and only increases once children leave home

Question 32

What types of communication styles are associated with happy marriage

Answer 32

People who are happily married experience conflict but key is to ensure that the number of caring and loving comments outweigh the negative

Disagreement don’t get personal and destructive

Happy couples are sensitive regarding the right time to communicate over what’s bothering them

Question 33

What are the possible reasons why people get divorced

Answer 33

Communication problems: lack of communication constitutes a main reason for divorce and accounts for most breakdown in relationship.

Positive communication is to compromise not confront or retaliate meaning it is cooperative where there is mutual respect

Negative communication results in arguments and conflict which is manifested when partners interrupt each other blame name call bring up past mistakes comparing partner being sarcastic or threatening insulting

Nagging which refers to continual demand complaints and fault finding

Withdrawal is when spouse continually withdraws from speaking to partner

Lack of openness: showing lack of disclosure with partner

Question 34

What are the possible reasons why people get divorced

Answer 34

Physical and/or emotional abuse

Physical abuse appears in physically aggressive behaviour like hitting shoving slapping and even Marital rape is a form of physical abuse

Emotional abuse is a pattern of behavior where partners belittle criticise threaten intimidates and humiliates the other and undermines their self esteem and self worth.

Question 35

What are the possible reasons why people get divorced

Answer 35

Lack of loss of trust : to trust one’s partner means one believes that they are reliable dependable honest responsible and feels physically safe and emotionally secure in a relationship. It is the glue that holds a relationship together and lack thereof is main reason for divorce which brings out jealousy suspicion anger self doubt possessiveness withdrawal anxiety depression

Question 36

What are the possible reasons why people get divorced

Answer 36

Adultery: refers to being sexually unfaithful in a marital relationship. It refers to physical sexual activity where one person is married to another

With infidelity the relationship can be emotional only.

Alcohol and drug abuse : described as black hole that sucks everything in its path of destruction.

General Marital distress: spouse(s) abuse alcohol report higher distress and discontent

Poor communication: partner abusing alcohol use more negative and damaging speech express more anger

Reduce family responsibilities: alcohol abuse decreases ability to participate in everyday tasks

Effect on others: leaves disastrous emotional social academic and Behavioural scars on children

Physical violence: alcohol abuse associated with aggression and impulsivity

Physical and sexual intimacy: alcohol abuse related to sexual problems like erectile dysfunction and orgasmic problems in women

Physical and mental health: alcohol abuse can reduce life expectancy by 10yrs and contribute to more than 200 diseases it is also associated with mental disorders like depression.

Question 37

What are the possible reasons why people get divorced

Answer 37

Finances: divergent values and perspectives on money is a significant cause of conflict. shared control of finances. Unstable income due to lack of employment can create feelings of insecurity and doubt.

Differences in priorities and responsibilities:

When one or both change priority in ways that are unacceptable to the other it can lead to end of relationship.

Opinions regarding having kids change in religion change in friendship or conflict with in-laws.

Household responsibility

Parental responsibility

Priorities regarding sexual behaviour: intimate and private area of a couples relationship can lead to incompatibility such as frequency of sexual intercourse or sexual experimentation

Question 38

What are the consequences of divorcing

Answer 38

Wellbeing: decline in well being across multiple life dimensions for period of time.

Mental health: divorcees experience decrease in general mental health includes depression anxiety anger substance abuse low self esteem hopelessness worthlessness or guilt

Physical health: weight change fatigue headache

Children in divorce: custody battles visitation redefined roles of parents and changes in parenting styles can lead to irritability and inability to respond to children needs

Economic consequences: financial resources have to be divided and results in decrease of one’s lifestyle

Social relationships: divorced partners suffer loss in friendship and other relationships

Question 39

What factors influence how couples adjust to divorce

Answer 39

Pre- divorce functioning: those with higher emotional stability and psychological functioning and better coping skills are more well adjusted.

Demographic factors: like education higher socio-economic status are associated with better post divorce adjustment

Attachment to former spouse: degree of attachment to former spouse with either love or hate feeling can hinder adjustment

Social support: in form of friends family provide a buffer against stress and creates sense of belonging

Social involvement: higher level of involvement including new romantic relationship enhance feeling of belonging

Belief system: religious and cultural views

Care and contact of children

Initiator of divorce: may feel more in control and experience less distress and visa versa for non initiator

The presence of children

Question 40

State the 5 psychological stages of divorce

Answer 40

Stage1: blaming spouse where focus is on spouse whom they blame for all past present and future problems in their life. Individual experience depression and low energy and stage is regarded as most difficult due to profound changes loss and uncertainty.

Stage 2: mourning the loss where acknowledging the end of the relationship occurs and overwhelming grief is experienced. Future appears hopeless and meaningless

Stage 3: anger is not dominant directed towards spouse and sense of righteousness to anger is present where spouse seen as wrong and needs to suffer. Person’s energy and self esteem is much higher now

Stage 4: being single where there’s a sense of being a whole person not needing spouse to make them completed. They start trusting themselves to make decisions and self image is improved

Stage 5: re-entry is a time of settling down where feelings that the person is in control of their is predominant and able to make long term plans and commitment.

Question 41

Based on research what resilience factors help aid remarriage

Answer 41

Good family relationships and support

Family communication that’s affirming conveying care and support

Family ability to have sense of control over outcomes in life

Activities and routines that help family spend time together

Strong marital relationship

Support from family and friends

Internal and external handling of problems by redefining stress

Spirituality and religion that provides meaning and purpose in life

Question 42

What is widowhood

Answer 42

Refers to the status of a person who has lost a spouse through death and hasn’t remarried where a wife is called a widow and a husband a widower

The death of a partner is one of the greatest emotional and social losses that an individual can experience during normal course of life.

Question 43

What is cohabitation and the reasons thereof

Answer 43

Defined as the state of 2 people living together as romantically and intimately involved partners without being married

Changing societal norms: refers to increased permissive attitudes towards sexuality peer pressure and decrease in parental authority.

Changing societal structures:young people studying simultaneously are involved in love relationship and mature enough for marriage but due to constraints are unable to marry cohabiting means expenses are divided and income combined to support each other financially.

Fear of divorce: couples view cohabitation as trial marriage to assess compatibility for marriage to discover partners habits expectations oddities willingness to share responsibility.

Legal reforms: legal reforms have led to greater recognition of equality and neutrality in matters of common law marriage cohabitation and child custody.

Equality: independence and equality are important to modern people. Marriage is sometimes associated with dominance where cohabitation represents a more flexible free egalitarian relationship.

Question 44

What deterrents are there towards cohabitation

Answer 44

Culture subculture and religion strongly oppose cohabitation. This leads to stigmatisation and place heavy burden on couple and their families.

Some believe marriage creates a certain mindset which increases commitment and perseverance

A tendency with cohabiting couples to postpone marriage.

Cohabitation isn’t recognised as a legal relationship meaning they do not have the same legal rights and protection.

The enertia effect which states that once a couple cohabitate a momentum towards marriage begins and become more difficult to break up due to greater investment. thus it forces those who wouldn’t marry to do so eventually.

Question 45

What are reasons why people choose being single

Answer 45

Some are best able to pursue interests and passions making meaningful life choices when single

Single people have a greater sense of autonomy and self determination.

The more self sufficient singles are the less negative emotions are experienced.

Single life affords opportunities to create the style of socialising that works best for them.

They like to be in charge of their own lives and life choices.

Tend to think fondly about spending time alone which is relaxing and enjoyable.

Question 46

Define family

Answer 46

A societal group That’s related by blood adoption faster care or ties of marriage civil union or cohabitation

Question 47

What are some psychosocial and biological factors of families

Answer 47

Psychological functions: providing the psychological needs of its members is a main and universal function of a family and provides emotional security. The love affection and respect that family members experience gives self confidence and belonging which help face hardship.

Social functions: family provide social identity which is a person’s sense of status in a group. This plays important role in self esteem and confidence.

Biological functions: family plays role in regulating sexual activity and reproduction.

Economic functions: family basic economic unit used to satisfy basic needs and general comfort.

Question 48

List some characteristics of a psychologically healthy family

Answer 48

Commitment: family members are committed to each other. They consider each member before making decisions.

Communication: strong family have positive constructive meaningful communication and find it easy to share feelings and points of view.

Appreciation and respect: members deeply care for each other and display this this through consideration.

Spending time together: members spend meaningful time with each other.

Coping skills: members deal effectively and creatively with daily stressors.

Spirituality: sharing beliefs in a higher power sharing moral values gives purpose and sense of optimism.

Question 49

List some characteristics of a psychologically dysfunctional family

Answer 49

Poor communication: superficial and negative in form of complaints criticism and others expression of displeasure.

Substance abuse: substance become core of existence with results that everything is organised around it. Conflict arises in form of verbal physical abuse isolation from members.

Denial: they don’t acknowledge what’s happening in their home

Inconsistencies and unpredictability: creates a poorly structured environment there is lack of security and stability

Excessive control: parents controlling children to an excessive extent

Question 50

Distinguish between parenthood and parenting

Answer 50

Parenthood is the state of being a parent.

Parenting involves rearing a child a process of promoting and supporting the psychological and physical development of a child from infancy to adulthood refering to the technique method and skills parents employ in raising children.

Question 51

State the 4 identified parenting styles

Answer 51

Authoritive: parents meet all standards of dimensions of parenting mainly warmth and nurturance consistent control expectations and communication. It involves high acceptance involvement adaptive techniques and autonomy.

Authoritarian: high in control and expectations but low in nurturance and warm and communication. Parents appear cold and rejecting degrading their children

Permissive: parents show warmth and nurturance but fail in expectations control and communication. They tend to be overindulgent and inattentive exerting little control of child behavior

Uninvolved: don’t meet any expectations are emotionally detached have little time and energy to spend with children

Question 52

State what constitutes an adoptive and Forster parents

Answer 52

An adoptive parents is a person who through legal process adopts a child of another parent as their own child

Foster parents are people who officially take a child into their family for a period without becoming the child’s legal parent.

Question 53

What is surrogacy and the forms thereof

Answer 53

Surrogacy refers to situation where a surrogate mother becomes pregnant and gives birth for a contracted party who after birth will be legal parent of baby.

Gestational surrogacy is the process whereby eggs of a married woman is fertilised artificially with sperm of the husband and embryo implanted in surrogate mother womb.

Traditional surrogacy: the surrogate mother is impregnated artificially with sperm of a married man whose wife is medically unable to fall pregnant.

Question 54

What concepts are relevant to fatherhood

Answer 54

Active involvement: defined in terms of engagement or direct interaction accessibility being available and responsibility providing resources.

Father absence refers to situation where father is physically or emotionally absent to his children. Physical absence caused by factors like divorce work denial of paternity and abandonment. Emotional absence refers to father’s emotional detachment from child

Question 55

Discuss step families and the step family cycle stages

Answer 55

Known as reconstituted or blended families formed when people remarry after divorce or death of spouse and establish a new family.

Early stages:

• fantasy stage: adults try heal pain created by divorce or death couple optimistic about future.
• immersion stage: realities of stepfamily functioning start to set in. Conflict disagreement now occur more
• awareness stage: family gets more clarity and acceptance

Middle stages: characterised by primarily reorganising and establishing relationships between new family member.

• mobilisation stage: couple air difference more openly where disagreement shows members becoming more comfortable and confident with eachother
• action stage: new agreement on how family will function where structure functioning and relationships change

Later stages: characterised by feelings of caring and stabilization.

• contact stage: relationship between stepparent and stepchildren has stabilized and strengthening of bond
• resolution stage: stepfamily has solid relationship and sense of wholeness as a family.

Question 56

What problems are common among stepfamily

Answer 56

Unrealistic expectations: expecting new family to pick up from biological family.

Relationships with stepchildren: some children find it hard to adjust to new situations and feel confused depressed low self worth and aggression towards step family members.

Attachment: formation bonds of step families is a main problem because of trauma that results from loss caused by divorce or death causing difficulty in loving trusting and security.

Extended family: relationship harmed by anger guilty jealousy conflicting values fear and misconceptions.

New way of life: need to rebuild a family with new social unit new relationship and communication styles disciplinary methods and problem solving strategy.

Question 57

Describe the identified grandparenting styles

Answer 57

Distant style: grandparents are emotionally distant from grandchildren due to geographical distance.

Formal style: GP see role in traditional terms like occasionally indulging GC babysitting expressing interest.

Companionship style: GP see GC often and engage in activities with them

Involved style: GP active in day to day lives of GC and assume parental role.

Question 58

What other concepts are related to parenting

Answer 58

Skipped generation refers to the grandparents being primarily caregivers to grandchild due to absent parents.

Intergenerational parenting refers to relationship between ageing parents and their adult children

Filial maturity: process of acceptance of the parent as a peer with imperfections

Filial obligations: children’s commitment to take care of ageing parents like when they were cared for as children.

Question 59

Explain the solidarity conflict model

Answer 59

Includes conflict and affection to describe the complex interactions between intergenerational family members.

The amicable relationship refers to high affection and low conflict

The ambivalent relationship reflects high affection and high conflict

The disharmonious relationship characterised by low affection and high conflict

The civil relationship characterised by emotional strain but Behavioural decency

Question 60

What is the sandwich generation

Answer 60

Refers to a generation of people responsible for bringing up their children and caring for ageing parents .

Question 61

Discuss single parent families

Answer 61

Refers to a family structure in which a woman and her children or a man and his children live alone due to divorce death desertion.

Question 62

Comment on childlessness and reasons for this life style.

Answer 62

Involuntary childlessness is the result of infertility problems

Voluntary childlessness refers to people who make a conscious lifelong voluntary decision to not have children.

Focus on partner and relationships including freedoms like travel

Afraid children may inherit genetic problem such as illness

Fear of not being a good parent

Concern for environmental and worsening works conditions

Physical appearance from pregnancy

Personality characteristics

Question 63

What categories are there regarding sibling relationships in terms of closeness involvement frequency of contact levels of envy and resentment

Answer 63

Intimate siblings: highly devoted to each other share a relationship of mutual love and understanding

Congenital siblings: strong friendship and caring

Loyal siblings: bond based on shared family background and experience a strong sense of family obligation.

Apathetic siblings: aren’t close and uninterested in taking responsibility for them.

Hostile siblings: purposefully avoid Each other feel contempt and anger.

Question 64

Discuss the different aspects of friendship

Answer 64

Friendship of utility: not based on affection for each other but both derive benefits from each other.

Friendship of pleasure: other person isn’t viewed as a sincere friend but a source of pleasure and enjoyment

Friendship of the good: based on mutual respect and appreciation for what the other represent as a person.

Friendship is based on mutual interests values and develop among people of the same generation or same stage of life.b

Question 65

What are the characteristics of good friendship

Answer 65

Reciprocity: mutual exchange at a deep emotional level of intimacy support sharing and companionship

Trustworthiness: refers to quality like reliability truthfulness integrity

Dependability: friends are always available for one another and willing to support each other.

Loyality: friends standing by each other regardless of the situation.

Honesty: open and truthful communication of emotions motivation and goals

Question 66

State the possible friendship styles most used

Answer 66

Independent: enjoy interaction with others but don’t have close relationship with anyone

Discerning: Have small circle of friends to whom they are attached and regard as very important

Gregarious: form close friendship with many people some of which are described as special friends and others as friends whose companionship they enjoy.

Question 67

What are some functions that work performs

Answer 67

Person’s identity defined according to kind of work they do

Work is a means to physical survival and provide income to feed clothe and shelter family

Work provides opportunities to be creative and is a form of self expression

Work improves Physical health by reducing risk of disease such as hypertension

Work improves mental health by decreasing stress depression and anxiety

Work determine individuals place and status in society

Work contributes to individuals feeling of self esteem and helps formation of self concept

Work creates a structure and rhymth to life defining one’s daily schedule and outlines the programmes for days weeks and months of the year.

Work provides opportunities for social interaction outside family

Work provides opportunities for personal development and intellectual growth

Question 68

What are the different perspectives regarding work

Answer 68

Intrinsic factors refer to the attitudes of the individual towards their job and to the characteristics of work as well as to the specific skills that it requires

Extrinsic factors refers to aspects such as salary the work environment working hours attitude and support from colleagues and opportunities for promotion.

People focusing on intrinsic factors more inclined to experience work satisfaction motivation and personal involvement in work than those focusing on extrinsic factors.

Question 69

Explain the consequences of unemployment

Answer 69

Economic problems
Problems achieving life goals 
Stigmatisation
Poor self concept
Uncertain identity
Anxiety
Depression 
Worthlessness
Anger 
Agression
Lack of self confidence
Boredom 
Isolation
Marital conflict
Family conflict
Physical consequences such as headaches heart problems substance abuse sleep and eating disorders

Question 70

State the stages of the career cycle

Answer 70

The pre career period ( younger than 20):
Focus is on career choice and prep for a career occuring during late adolescence.

The early career period:
Person enters career that is challenging and interesting phase in life accompanied by new roles and responsibilities. Period of consolidation and establishment occurs implying individuals become more realistic regarding careers.

Mid career period (35-50)
Workers in maintenance staged marked by continual adjustment processes to improve their position. Job satisfaction increases. Workaholism a phenomenon that occurs among populations which is Feeling compelled to work because of internal pressure having persistent thoughts about work when not working working beyond what’s expected of worker despite potential for negative consequences.

Career plateau means reaching stage where there’s no longer opportunity for advancement due to external or internal influence.

Burnout syndrome/ work burnout is associated with work related stress and characterised by emotional and physical fatigue feeling of inefficiency helplessness and loss of control

Late career period (50-65):
Characterized by deceleration and disengagement where workers begin planning for retirement and seperating themselves from work use it or lose it hypothesis suggest ageing related reduction capacities are partly due to disuse of skills and abilities.

Retirement: begins when people stop working full-time.

Question 71

What distinguishes workaholism from work engagement

Answer 71

Motivation underlying them differ. Engaged workers are driven to work because they find it pleasurable workaholics do so because they feel a compulsion to work

Emotions differ such as workaholism related to negative discrete emotions like guilt anxiety anger. Be it personal at work or home. Work engagement is related to positive discrete emotions like joviality attentiveness and self assurance at work and home.

Consequence differ. Workaholism linked to negative outcomes while work engagement is linked to positive outcome

Question 72

What determines the adjustment to retirement

Answer 72

Access to resources such as finance health and marital relationship.

Voluntary Vs involuntary retirement. People who retire voluntarily adjust better

Future expectations: retirement anxiety or fear of social consequences of retirement.

Attitude towards work: lifelong attitude towards work influence attitude towards retirement

Preparation for retirement: those well prepared find adjustment easier than those who aren’t prepared.

Question 73

What are the 5 stages of emotional progression towards retirement

Answer 73

Stage 1: imagination where positive view exists

Stage 2: anticipation where positive emotions are experienced but about 2 years before worry and anxiety increase

Stage 3: liberation begins with excitement relief and enthusiasm but soon after retirees may feel unsettled anxious and bored.

Stage 4: reorientation where many say joy of retirement has passed causing emptiness worry and boredom

Stage 5: reconciliation marked by increased contentment acceptance and personal reflections

Question 74

Elaborate on the woman’s work cycle and work patterns

Answer 74

Glass ceiling refers to an abstract barrier that prevents the promotion of women to higher and executive positions.

Gender stereotypes that women are inferior to men and lack ability to deal with challenges of senior management and lead to

Leadership stereotypes which is the tendency to associate the profile of a competent manager or leader with common male characteristics

Regular career: women begin career after training and continue working with few or no interruptions

Interrupted career: women begin career but it’s interrupted for some time like raising children and then return to workforce

Second career: women begin training and career when their children are ready to leave home

Modified second career: typical of women who begin training while children are still at home but old enough to not need full time care

Question 75

Comment on leisure and recreation

Answer 75

Defined as periods during which individuals have no work obligations.

Leisure is relaxing time.
Recreation involves physical activity of a thrilling and exciting nature like traveling. It contribute to stress relief self esteem and identity.