Chapter 4: Personality Development

Question 1

What is personality

Answer 1

Is viewed as the essence of an individual which makes each of us unique recognisable person. It includes distinctive behavior traits thoughts values interests drives self concepts ability and emotional patterns characteristic of the way in which people adapt to life’s situations.

Question 2

What are the biological perspective on adult personality development

Answer 2

Personality development primarily considered in terms of genes brain structure physiological mechanism. Some being stable while others are more flexible and can change over life span due to age related maturation and degeneration processes.

Question 3

Define personality traits

Answer 3

Relatively stable and enduring patterns of behaviour thoughts and feelings that are relatively consistent across a wide variety of situation and contexts.

Traits describe most basic characteristics that distinguish one from another. Theorists regard personality as an entity that reflects innate disposition and assume that traits determine behavior across range of situation.

Question 4

Evaluate the five factor Theory and five factor model:

Answer 4

FFT: proposed by Paul costa and Robert McCrae which is a comprehensive theory in that it covers aspects like traits Behaviour social cognitive construct and connection between them. The main component is basic tendencies which are considered influenced solely by biological factors including genetic factors and brain structure. These tendencies are comprised of five trait dimensions which is the five factor model.

Question 5

Expand on the five factor model

Answer 5

Neuroticism: concerns the extent to which a person is prone to experiencing negative emotions and moods. Six facets are anxiety hostility self consciousness depression impulsiveness and vulnerability. People high in neuroticism experience frequent and intense negative emotions like fear sadness and frustration and show emotional instability those lower show more calm and optimism display emotional stability.

Extraversion: refers to the tendency to be outgoing in social interaction which can be grouped into interpersonal traits (warmth gregariousness assertiveness) temperamental traits ( activity excitement seeking and positive emotions) those high are talkative sociable compassionate those low are shy and keep thoughts and feelings to themselves.

Openness: refers to the overall depth and breadth of an individual intellectual artistic and experiential life. Openness to fantasy, openness to aesthetics ( beauty and art) openness to action ( doing something new) openness to ideas (curiosity) openness to value( open minded) openness to feelings. Those high tend to have broad range of interests and enjoy learning those low have narrow interests and prefer routine and familiarity..

Agreeableness: reflects the extent to which a person behaves pro socially towards others and maintain pleasant harmonious interpersonal relationships. Display sincerity altruism trust modesty compliance kindness. Those high are willing to help and forgive and are respectful those low look down on others are argumentative and hold grudges.

Conscientiousness: reflects the propensity to be self controlled task and goal oriented and rule following which describes an individual capacity to organise complete task work toward long term goals that shows orderliness self discipline reliability competence achievement and strive. Highly conscientious people prefer order and structure are productive ambitious and energetic who follow rules and norms. Those low have difficulty controlling impulses are negligent late aimless and inconsistent.

Question 6

State the line of thinking the FFT holds

Answer 6

Basic tendencies become manifest as character adaptations to suit cultural Social or developmental contexts which manifest as goals attitudes self schemas personal strivings…

Objective biography is the specific and observable manifestations of personality such as behavior thought and feelings.

FFT main viewpoint is that it occurs according to intrinsic genetically driven program but acknowledge external influences which happens through accommodation when basic tendencies interact with or fit in certain environmental conditions.
Assimilation occurs when specific behavior thoughts or emotional reactions fit characteristic adaptation into certain situations.

Question 7

How are personality traits measured as stabile or changing

Answer 7

Mean level: refers to ave level of people’s score across time and/or age. It implies general tendency found in most.

Rank order: refers to relative positions of individuals traits in comparison to age peers. Highs stay high and lows low.

Individual differences: refer to fact that traits may increase decrease or remain stable across age groups over time.

Stability of variance: implies individual differences remain stable over time and/or across ages even though mean level or rank order are unstable.

Structural stability: refers to stability of covariation among traits on a personality scale .

Question 8

Why is understanding stability important

Answer 8

Plays role in predicting a variety of important life outcomes which is essential in maintaining health and success in work and marriage.

Stability of behavior is important manifestation of personality identify mechanism of stability and conditions which stability is most prominent.

Understanding stability is important for assessment of personality over time

Knowledge of circumstance under what trait behavior are more/less makes changing more likely.

Question 9

Why is understanding change important

Answer 9

Neuroticism declines until middle Adulthood and then is stable but slightly increase around 80+

Extraversion shows some decline during emerging adulthood.

Openness to experience shows increases in emerging adulthood stability in middle Adulthood and decrease in older adulthood

Agreeableness remains stable until 50 then increases with age

Conscientiousness increase in young and middle Adulthood increases to peak between 50-70 then decline.

Question 10

What possible forces contribute to personality stability and change

Answer 10

According to biological perspective personality trait stability and change are attributed to intrinsic maturational processes than external influences.

Environmental factors predict different changes in personality during different life periods

Theories focusing on transactions between person and environment contend that individuals are seen as active agents who play an important role in selecting and shaping their environment in turn these environments affect personality.

Question 11

What is the contextual and environmental approach to adult personality development

Answer 11

Contextual or environmental approach refers to external influences on personality like life events social roles cultural norms transitional period. These influences change during the life course and such factors have important effects on personality traits.

Question 12

State Erik Erikson psychosocial development theory

Answer 12

According to Erikson personality development occurs throughout the life span and in 8 sequential stages each one characterized by a crisis that refers to the central concern for that Certain development stage and adjustment the individual has to make regarding relevant tasks during each psychosocial stage.

Each stage viewed as complex interactions of biological psychological cultural and social forces.

Question 13

Which stages of Erikson’s psychosocial theory are directly related to adulthood

Answer 13

Identity achievement Vs identity confusion:
Emerges in adolescence but remains important throughout adulthood and forms a cornerstone of subsequent adult psychosocial crises. It involves trying to balance the need to choose a possible self and the desire to try out many possible selves. Those having clear sense of self have a clear sense of purpose in life.
Identity confusion involves lack of direction vagueness about purpose of one’s life and unclear sense of self.

Intimacy Vs isolation: the attainment of intimacy involves establishing a mutually satifying relationship with another person where young adult has to learn to sacrifice their own desires but have the ability to maintain a sense of seperateness. Isolation occurs when a person becomes self absorbed and never achieves true mutuality with another person

Generativity Vs stagnation: focuses on psychosocial issue of procreation productivity and creativity. Resolution comes from moving away from self interest to contribute to society. Stagnation occurs when individual turn concern and energy inward or solely to others of own age.

Ego integrity Vs despair: individual faces psychosocial issues related to ageing and growing closer to death. resolution comes when individual develops a sense of satisfaction with life they have led the choices they made and goals they attained which involves acceptance of positive and negative attributes of one’s life. Individual in despair feels discontent with life and thought of it ending before correcting mistakes is frightening

Question 14

What 3 principles did Kivnick and Wells identify in Erikson theory

Answer 14

Dynamic balance of opposites: emphasises the importance of both the opposing tendencies in each stage for healthy psychosocial development.

Vital involvement: is defined as the reciprocal and meaningful engagement between a person and environment like engaging with people ideas materials institution etc this principle emphasize the critical role of the physical and social environment in shaping who a person becomes over time and vise versa.

Life in time: principle highlights the fact that development is a life long process and that all psychosocial themes are operational throughout the life span.

Question 15

What is the African perspective on personality development

Answer 15

Personality in African context is regarded as the product of the interaction between a sense of self through social bonds and a sense of self as a conscious being. It is Defined in terms of a person’s relationship with others like family community status.

Complex interdependence is a concept of the self which includes dependency or interdependency non competitiveness and a sense of belonging to the community. the relationship between the individual and the community is multi directional where individuals are part of a collective that they create and that creates them.

Personhood is the becoming of a person and begins when children are born into a family community and undergo rituals called rites of passage of incorporation like naming ceremony. The development of personhood is an ongoing process and attained through interactions with others and community.

Concept of Ubuntu forms integral part. Possession of quality of personhood is reflected in people’s relationship with others. Ubuntu refers to the realisation of the person of his/ her duties in the community of other interdependent humans. A person is always being with and for others.

Question 16

What are the phases of selfhood as described by Bame Nsamenang

Answer 16

Spiritual Selfhood: begins with conception as a reincarnation of an ancestral spirit.

Social Selfhood: begins in birth and ends with biological death which develop through 7 stages.

Ancestral selfhood: follows biological death with ritual initiation.

Each phase moves through different stages of development in the life span

Question 17

What concepts does Nsamenang state in conjunction with the social selfhood

Answer 17

Communitarian ethic: a sense of community

Multiple social enmeshment: various relationship in a community like immediate family extended family and peers

Encompassing social relationships: decisions made based on community needs rather than individual benefits

Rhythms of collective life: regular flow of sequence of events such as a season and life stages

Subordination of individual identity: individual attain a sense of identity from community rather than internal sense of being.

Question 18

Discuss the neo-socialanalytic model of personality

Answer 18

Emphasize strong effect of social roles on personality and assumes that personality is influenced primarily by socialisation factors to the extent that experience can and do cause change in personality traits.

It suggests that personality structure consists of 4 domains traits motives and values abilities and narrative.

Traits are defined as the relatively enduring automatic patterns of thought feeling and behavior that people exhibit in similar situation across time.
Motives and values reflect what people want to do or would like to have in their lives
Ability refer to what people are capable of doing on cognitive emotional and physical levels.
Narrative focus on the written or spoken stories of people used to understand themselves environment and history.

These domains are interrelated in identity and in reputation. These modes of assessment influence and are influenced by the 4 domains.

Contextual factors like society culture and social roles are the most important units of analysis.

Question 19

What are the 7 principles of personality development and mechanism of continuity and change proposed by neo socioanalytic model

Answer 19

The cumulative continuity principle: proposes that personality traits increase in rank order consistency throughout the life span peaking between the ages of 50 and 60

The maturity principle:
People become more mature with age and maturity is defined as becoming more agreeable conscientious and emotionally stable

The social investment principles:
Explain why people become more mature with age. Personality traits changes occur in young adulthood because of new investment in conventional social roles including being a parent or employee which brings new experiences and expectations to be nurturing responsible and emotionally stable.

The corresposive principle:
States that people enter specific environment and have specific experiences because of their personality traits.

The plasticity principle:
Personality traits are open systems that can be influenced by environment at any age.

The role continuity principle:
States that consistent roles rather than consistent environment are cause of continuity in personality traits over time

The identity development principle
With age the process of developing committing to and maintaining an identity leads to greater personality consistency

The niche picking principle
Thought their personality traits people create suitable social environment and paths in their lives that help maintain current trait level.

Question 20

What is the transactional approach to personality development

Answer 20

Refers to approaches that recognise the effect of both biology and environment in the development of personality

Question 21

Comment on what Behavioural genetics are and describe the genotype environment correlation

Answer 21

The primary goal in Behavioural genetics is to investigate the effects of genetic on individual human behaviour. The correlation between genotype which is the unique genetic constitution of an individual and the environment.

According to the theory of genotype environment correlation genes are the driving force behind the development of an individual’s personality which means that an individual genes affect not only kinds of environmental conditions to which person will be exposed but also way in which one reacts towards environmental influences.

Question 22

What are the 3 kinds of mechanisms involved in the genotype environment correlation

Answer 22

Active genotype environment correlation:
Refers to people’s tendency to seek out avoid change or create environment actively to match their genetically predisposed characteristics.

Evocative genotype environment correlation:
Happens when an individual’s genetically related behavior evokes reaction from the environment.

Passive genotype environment correlation:
Refers to the genes a person inherits from parents and the environment in which the person is raised.

Question 23

What is the gene by environment interaction

Answer 23

The environment is crucial in determining when and how our genes express themselves.

Gene by environment interaction (GxE interaction) refers to the occurrence that environmental experiences affect individuals differently due to genetically affected differences.

Question 24

What are the implications for behavioural genetics

Answer 24

Individuals may respond similarly to family level environment based on genotype.

Siblings growing up in shared family environment may respond differently to same environment provided by parents based on their different genotype

As individuality develops environment that are unique emerge as opposed to those shared with siblings. Interaction between genetic effect and unique non shared environment will have individually unique effect on development

The importance of genotype by shared environment interaction early in life shifts to importance of genotype by non shared environment interaction with increasing maturation

Question 25

What is the social genomic model

Answer 25

Social genomics or sociogenomics refers to the field of research that examines why and different social factors and processes affect the activities of the genome. The social genomic model challenges the assumption that we’re born with a fixed set of genes and that our environment and experience in that environment determine the level to which we fulfill the potential of our genetic predisposition.

Sociogenomics indicate characteristics of the social environment appear to be able to affect the activity of some of our most basic processes. The idea of sociogenomics is that the genetic factors and socio environmental factors aren’t independent and affects each other.

Question 26

What are the implications of social experience affected by neurocognitive processes regulating gene expression

Answer 26

Situation that hasn’t happened or never will happen may result in same behavior triggered by actual events

Same social environmental conditions like being socially evaluated or rejected can be assessed in different ways and have diff gene expression for diff people. Factors that contribute to effect depends on aspects like individuals sensitivity to social threat the tendency to view stressful circumstances as challenges Vs threatening cognitive resources availability of support biographical and psychiatric history.

Indicates events that are very different from one another like social rejection Vs physical assult may have the ability to initiate same response.

Viewing world as hostile and threating in the absence of actual physical danger results in skewing of gene expression that could result in mental/ physical illness

Question 27

What does the transactional approach suggest

Answer 27

There’s a strong and stable genetic foundation of individual differences in personality throughout the adult life span

Non shared environment influences on individual differences in personality traits become more important and increasingly stable from early to middle Adulthood.

Both genetic and non shared environmental effects contribute to stability and change in personality traits

Certain characteristics of social environment and people’s perceptions of those conditions may be linked to changes in Gene expression and in personality traits.

Question 28

What is self concept

Answer 28

Reflects individuals definition and understanding of who they are and what they are like.

It is the image idea or perception we have about ourselves. The ideas we have about ourselves are called schemas or self schemas which play a role in how we define ourselves and determine what info we consider important and how we process this info.

Self schemas play a role in regulating a person’s behavior and guide decisions.

Question 29

What are some domains of self concept

Answer 29

The physical domain: which relates to concerns about body health and physical functioning.

The academic domain: refers to concerns about success or failure in academic settings

The occupational domain: concerns work or occupational identity retirement and leisure activities

The social domain: involves concerns about people interpersonal relationships community and ones place in society

The competence domain: reflects concerns about the ability to meet basic needs

The affect domain: implies ones awareness of emotional states.

Question 30

Define self constual

Answer 30

Refers to a person’s perception about the self specifically regarding the relationship between the individual self and the social and cultural settings.

The type of self constual affect emotions cognition motivation and general behavior.

Question 31

What are the aspects of the self constual

Answer 31

Independence Vs interdependence: individuals in individualist cultures is characterized as independent self constual meaning these individuals view themselves as individualistic self contained autonomous and retains the same abilities qualities goals regardless of Social context.

Individuals of a collectivist culture is characterized as interdependent self constual implying that the self view itself as depending on others and striving for harmony. People Define themselves in terms of their relationship with others

Individualistic culture emphasize the inner stable and self determing nature of the self and Define themselves in terms of internal attributes like traits abilities value and preferences.

Question 32

What are possible selves

Answer 32

They represent what we would like to become as well as what we don’t want to become or may be afraid of becoming called feared self.

Develop from what a person was in the past to who they are in the present. Are shaped by the environment and variables like culture and gender play important roles.

Question 33

Discuss the possible selves in terms of self concept domains

Answer 33

The social self: interpersonal relationships remain meaningful and central throughout the life span and across genders social class culture. Young adults concerned about marrying right person middle aged concerned about their children development. Older adults concerned about being alone becoming dependant on others

The occupational self: perception of work status. During working age those who have paid work perceive status as positive. Hoped for selves include improvement in self and work environment. Feared self is unemployment.

The physical self: age difference reflects needs and behavior of specific stage of life. Young adults concern sexual and interpersonal attractiveness. Older adults concern issues like health fitness illness and declines.

The temporal self: refers to individuals perception of their existence in time ( perception of past present and future self)

Question 34

Explain self esteem

Answer 34

Refers to the evaluative aspect of the self concept. it reflects a person’s overall subjective evaluation of own worth as a person. Person with high self esteem perceive themselves as having worth whereas low self esteem doesn’t. Self esteem involves feeling of self acceptance self confidence and self respect

Question 35

Expand on the self esteem developmental trajectory across adulthood

Answer 35

Increases in self esteem are indicated from young to middle Adulthood and a peak is reached during middle Adulthood and decreases in old age.

The developmental trajectories suggest patterns of normative changes as individuals orientate behavior to meet environmental demand and developmental challenges.

Increase in self esteem may be due to maturational cognitive relationship and sociocontextual changes.

Decline of self esteem in late adulthood may be associated with physical cognitive financial social changes especially when faced with too many challenges and losses.

Question 36

What are individual differences in self esteem development.

Answer 36

Gender: women tend to show lower overall self esteem than men. Biological factors or sociocultural factors may account for this

Education: higher education attainment tends to predict higher self esteem

Socio-economic status: unfavorable changes in income and employment may result in decline in self esteem. Low economic status has negative effects on self esteem

Work status: individual change their self evaluation as they learn norms associated with work related activity. Job status work satisfaction mastery experience contribute to feelings of self worth and increase in personality traits

Health: unfavorable changes in physical health account for decline in self esteem

Personality characteristics: personality traits may explain why some experience self esteem trajectories that are successful than others

Stressful life experiences: non normative experience like accident and illness may account for change in self esteem

Relationship: transition in romantic relationship or seperation as well as quality of relationship affect development of self esteem.

Question 37

What is meant by the stability of self

Answer 37

The level of self esteem changes in systematic ways across the life span. Throughout young and middle Adulthood self esteem increase and becomes stable less subjected to effects of life meaning it becomes better adjusted.

Self esteem exhibits trait like stability so individuals who have high/ low esteem at one development stage are likely to have high/low as they get older. This means it’s a relatively enduring personality characteristic.

Question 38

What are the effects of self esteem on important life outcomes

Answer 38

People with high self esteem are more likely to persist in face of difficult

More equipped to cope with troubles that arise in personal lives

More likely to seek challenge and stimulation of worthwhile and demanding goals

Tend to be more ambitious in terms of what they hope to experience in life emotionally intellectually creatively and spiritually

More likely to form nourishing relationship tend to have honest open and appropriate communication with others because they believe their thoughts have value.

Poor self esteem correlates with irrationality distorted interpretation of reality rigidity fear of certainty inappropriate conformity or inappropriate rebellion defensiveness fear of hostilities. People with low self esteem live to avoid pain failure humiliation rather than to experience joy.

Question 39

Define identity

Answer 39

Refers to a person’s sense of self. It includes views about physical self cognitive abilities personality characteristics and social roles.

It is often viewed as a social construction involving personality traits social roles group membership.

Identity domain refers to ones goals values beliefs and includes political preference occupational choice religious affiliation sexual and gender preference social group and family relationships and cultural or ethnic identity.

Question 40

Discuss the identity status theory

Answer 40

Commitment reflects whether individual have made choices in certain life domains and engage in activities to implement these.

Exploration refers to comparing different possible commitment before making a choice.

The 4 identity statuses are

Identity diffusion: no commitment made to any goals values and beliefs and no concern regarding exploration of options

Identity foreclosure: commitment made without exploration. Individuals are able to make commitment without needing to explore first

Identity moratorium: an actively ongoing identity exploration indicated. During period individuals examine fit between themselves and roles ideas attitudes and values.

Identity achievement: commitment made after a period of exploration.

Achievement is the most developmentally sophisticated identity and diffusion the least sophisticated identity.

Question 41

What are regression identities and how do they form

Answer 41

Normal development sequence would be D-F-M-A but if regression occurs it means that instead of following this sequence a person may move backwards to less sophisticated identities

Disequilibrium: movement from achievement of moratorium

Rigidification: movement from either moratorium or achievement to a rigid closure

Disorganisation: movement from any status to diffusion.

Regression can occur due to reconsidering ones earlier exploration and commitment

Normative age graded influence like regressing to foreclosures at a time when people establish family and careers

History graded influence

Question 42

What are some identity issues

Answer 42

Through late adolescence to young adulthood some people make form of progressive identity status change and likelihood of being stable is relatively high

People don’t reach overall identity achievement before middle Adulthood

Identity continue to develop through adulthood

Adult identity rearly remains unchanged where persistent and increasing levels of identity diffusion continue to middle Adulthood have been found

Individuals move in and out of identity statuses in diff patterns of variability

Adolescence and late adulthood are transitioning periods

Question 43

Expand on the identity process Theory

Answer 43

According to theory people perceive their experiences in terms of personal identity being idea or concept of self.

Identity assimilation: refers to attempt or tendency to interpret new experiences in terms of an existing identity which may have positive and negative consequences. It serves a purpose of continued positive view of self but can cause person to deny the reality of an experience.

Identity accommodation refers to the process of changing one’s identity in response to new challenges.

The goal of development is optimal adaptation to environment by establishing a balance between maintaing consistency of self and changing in response to experience.

Question 44

Explain the multiple threshold model proposed by Whitbourne

Answer 44

Threshold Refers to the point where the individual realises there’s a decline in functioning and feels need to adapt identity.

Multiple refers to the fact that ageing occurs in various systems at various times where each age related change means another threshold had to be crossed.

Question 45

What are the 5 pathway metaphors used by Whitbourne

Answer 45

Authentic road: individual achieves solid identity commitment through exploration and change involving identity balance

Triumphant trail: those who have overcome life challenges and resilient

Meandering way: people who follow have failed to settle on a life course constantly Searching for identity involves identity accommodation

Straight and narrow pathway: individual maintains a consistent life pattern that is resistant to change and use identity assimilation

Downward slope: people show self defeating behavior and poor decision making.

Question 46

What are emotions

Answer 46

They are a complex reaction pattern involving experience behavior pattern physiological elements by which the individual attempt to deal with a personally significant event.

Question 47

Which 2 personality traits are associated with emotions

Answer 47

Extraversion and neuroticism are associated with individual differences in the degree to which people experience emotions and the way in which they react to them

Emotionality increase likelihood of experience trait matching emotions like trait anxiety trait anger. Trait emotionality can shield against certain emotions like trait positivity can shield against despair.

Emotions have direct effect on an individual functioning.

Emotions contribute to behavior cognition desires or needs like extraversion is associated with need for social contact power while neuroticism is associated with needs for acceptance tranquility and order.

Question 48

What factors influence emotions

Answer 48

Genetic or biological factors like brain structure and neurotransmitter

Environmental influences shape emotion related thoughts appraisal and experience which are responsible for the stability of emotional experience over time.

Question 49

What are the domains explored in emotion and ageing

Answer 49

Emotional experience: refers to positive & negative feelings that people generally experience on a daily basis. Older people tend to experience an increase in mixed emotions referred to as poignancy and occurs because older adults are aware that all things eventually end.

Emotional regulation: refers to a person’s ability to manage and respond effectively to an emotional experience. Situation selection focuses on choosing to enter or avoid a situation in order to enhance or minimise emotions. Attentional deployment can be used by attending to different aspects of particular situation. Age related positivity effects is the attending to positive rather than negative stimuli and the preference of older adults to remember positive stimuli over negative stimuli.

Emotion perception and appraisal: emotion perception refers to ability to identify the emotions of others

Emotion appraisal refers to the way in which one evaluate or judges emotional events.

Question 50

What theories are there to explain the paradox of ageing

Answer 50

The dynamic integration theory: suggest decline on cognitive resources make older adults more vulnerable to arousing situations. Adult compensate by dampening negative emotions and focus on positive effect

Selective optimisation with compensation model: maintain that successful ageing required selective investment in goals and environment as well as drawing on accumulated knowledge and expertise.

The socio-emotional selective theory: argues that motivational goals shift as people grow older. Emotional experience improve with age because people come to appreciate and invest more effort in those matters that are important to them

The strength and vulnerability integration model: proposes that the majority of older adults engage in thought and behavior that maintain emotional well being. These thoughts and behavior are emotion regulation skills.

Environmental demand and social interaction: social environment shows changes in later life. How people make meaning from their emotional experience can Shape what kind of consequences those emotions will have.

Question 51

What 3 levels of personality development did MC Adams introduce

Answer 51

Dispositional traits: are broad trait descriptors that are relatively stable across the life span

Characteristic adaptation refer to a person’s motivation developmental concerns and life strategies.

Life story encompasses the internalised evolving story of the self. Individuals construct a personal life story to make sense of their lives which is an internalised narrative that integrates a person’s reconstructed past current situation and imagined future and gives rise to

Narrative identity: allow people to feel that their lives have unity and purpose by identifying who person is and will be. It uses autobiographical memory to select important scenes character plot and themes. It is highly subjective interpretation of a person’s personal experience strategically designed and reformulated over time to achieve psychological functions from consolidating a sense of context and temporal coherence to presenting the self in a favourable light.