Chapter 3: cognitive development

Question 1

What is cognition

Answer 1

Refers to the ability to learn remember solve problems and be knowledgeable about the world.

Question 2

What is the information processing theory

Answer 2

Focuses on process of thought. Attention is given to how the mind works before a response is given and in the many ways in which it may be given.

The basis for this approach is that specific aspects of the process explain the specific response or action

Question 3

What are the processes regarding the cognitive system

Answer 3

Info is captured by senses where it’s then encoded and interpreted by brain reactions connections and memories and concludes with a reaction

Question 4

Describe the sensory input stage of the info processing theory

Answer 4

Decline in sensory acuity may lead to impaired cognition.

Positive correlation was found between sensory ability and cognitive functions

Sensory decline correlates with cognitive changes

Sensory decline correlates with a decline in some cognitive abilities but not in others

The general ageing effect means that the effect is known to be linked to the effects of the ageing process.

Question 5

How is attention affected

Answer 5

Info the sensory register which is the physiological point or sensory organs like eye ear month where info like sight sound taste enters sensory info systems.

To process info one needs to pay attention to incoming sensory stimulus. Attention is the state in which cognitive resources are focused on certain aspects of environment rather than others while CNS is in a state of readiness to respond to stimuli.

Question 6

What are the processes involved in attention

Answer 6

Sustained attention: refers to the ability to concentrate on a task without being distracted.

Selective attention: ability to concentrate on a task while there are other distracting stimuli present.

Switching attention: refers to alternating attention between two or more tasks like carrying out several tasks. Shifting between them by following rules or cues.

Divided attention: required when the individual has to attend to and process more than one source of info at the same time.

Executive attention: involves aspects of thinking that includes the planning of actions allocating attention to goals detecting and compensating for errors monitoring progress on tasks and dealing with new circumstances.

Question 7

Discuss the attentional resource theory

Answer 7

Refer to the amount of attention available to perform cognitive tasks that require effort and where ability to distribute attention is under control of the individual. It proposed that the available attentional capacity and efficient distribution decline with age

Question 8

What is the inhibitory deficit theory

Answer 8

Focuses on ability to ignore or surpress irrelevant info or stimuli and focus on relevant stimuli.

Question 9

Expand on the neurological approach

Answer 9

A decline in frontal lobe functioning is associated strongly with executive functioning like planning and selection of important stimuli from distracting stimuli may also play a role in attentional processes.

Question 10

Define information processing speed

Answer 10

It refers to the amount of time it takes a person to process a stimulus prepare a response and then react to the stimulus

Question 11

What is reaction time

Answer 11

It is a measure of how long it takes a person to respond to a stimulus

Question 12

Discuss the generalised slowing hypothesis

Answer 12

It states that age related slowing is a general phenomenon apparent in any given task from encoding to response execution.

Neural noise hypothesis refers to irrelevant activity from residual neural activity from previous processing. The distraction along with age related change in sense organs loss of brain cells poor blood flow causes a delay in the ability to produce a response

Neurotransmission: caused by a loss of neurons a slowing of synaptic communication or a loss of info at each synaptic transmission. Age related deficiencies in dopamine all lead to poor input to the frontal cortex affecting cognitive functions

Question 13

State the age complexity hypothesis

Answer 13

The complexity of a task affects how quickly people respond. The more complex a task the slower the response will be.

Question 14

What is the diffusion model

Answer 14

The 3 parameters are described here: drift rate which refers to the rate of accumulation of info over time. Larger drift rates indicates faster accumulation of info and higher efficiency in responses.

Boundary seperation: describe an individual response conservativeness which reflects a person’s need for more info to generate response.

Non decision time : refers to sensorimotor processes necessary for sensory encoding as well as motor response preparation and execution

Question 15

Define memory

Answer 15

Refers to the ability to encode store and retrieve information and experience.

Encoding is the process of getting info into the memory system.

Storage involves the way in which info is represented and kept in memory

Retrieval is the accessing of info from the memory system.

Question 16

How is processing requirements for memory effected by aging

Answer 16

For memorization info must be encoded and retrieved. The inefficient encoding hypothesis suggest that memories that are inefficiently encoded Will be lost because they can’t be retrieved.

The inefficient retrieval hypothesis argues that memories are lost because even though stored properly the search for them is inefficient.

Question 17

How is the temporal characteristics for memory effected by aging

Answer 17

Refer to the length of time over which memories are retained.

Working memory: described as workplace of the mind. Acts as temporary buffer for info or events perceived recently. It assists to simultaneously passively store and actively manipulate info necessary in activities like learning reasoning and comprehension.

Question 18

What is the multicomponent model of working memory

Answer 18

Has 4 components:

Phonological loop: info that can be rehearsed by repeating the material several times

Visuospatial sketchpad: info that you see is maintained here and used to manipulate visual and spatial images

Episodic buffer: is responsible for recalling info info that’s already in the LTM by bringing it temporarily into working memory

Central executive: is responsible for deciding how to allocate cognitive resources to specific operations. Helps co ordinate concurrent processing when the individual has to maintain a memory while performing another attention demanding task at the same time.

Question 19

What is long term memory

Answer 19

Refers to the ability to retain memory for longer periods ranging from a few seconds to hours or years.

WM interacts with LTM by transmitting info to LTM for longer Storage as LTM has a larger capacity store where info can be kept for long periods.

Question 20

How is types of memory effected by aging

Answer 20

Explicit and implicit memory:

Explicit/ declarative memory refers to the conscious and intentional retrieval of info that was stored or learned purposefully.
Implicit/non declarative memory involves the retrieval of info without conscious or intentional recollection.

Decline can be interpreted as the implicit and explicit memory systems may be associated with different brain regions that are differently impaired by ageing and different processing resources may be involved.

Procedural memory: underlies the acquisition of skills and other aspects of knowledge that aren’t directly accessible to consciousness and whose presence can be demonstrated only indirectly by action.

Question 21

How is types of memory effected by aging

Answer 21

Semantic and episodic memory:

Semantic memory is a store of facts like general knowledge or academic learning which includes person’s field of expertise and everyday knowledge about places people and things

Episodic memory are events of personal experiences and typically knowledge acquired at a specific time and place.

Aspects of episodic memory include source memory: when where and who info was acquired
Temporal memory: remember whether one event occurred more recently than others)
Frequency of occurrence memory: remember how frequently a specific event occurred.

Question 22

How is types of memory effected by aging

Answer 22

Remote memory: involves recalling info from distant past. Assessing remote memory becomes harder because

Personal memories recalled from the past are usually those that are highly salient to the person.
Remote events more likely to have been rehearsed and recounted
Remote memory may be subject to unconscious distortion and embellishment

Question 23

How is types of memory effected by aging

Answer 23

Auto biological memory: LTM for ones own personal life experiences.which is a firm of episodic memory but involves semantic memory to. Episodic component is recollection of temporal and spatial memories. Semantic component consists of knowledge and facts of one’s past.

Memories from very early childhood are almost non existent and refers to childhood amnesia resulting due to brains under development. Linguistic sophistication necessary. Infants lack self awareness

The reminiscence peak or bump refers to phenomenon that most autobiographical memories seem to emminate between 10-32yrs where key events took place.

Memories for personally traumatic or unexpected events are called flashbulb memories which emerges from observations that people could give detailed account of such events years later.

False memory: recall of items or events that didn’t occur.

Question 24

what is retrospective memory and prospective memory?

Answer 24

refers to the recall of info from the distant or remote past. this includes factual and autobiographical info

Prospective memory involves remembering something in the future like an action or event.

In event based prospective memory individual attempts to remember to do something.
Time based prospective memory the individual attempts to remember to do something at a particular time

Question 25

Define metamemory

Answer 25

Is the knowledge about how the memory system works and what we believe to be true about it

Memory monitoring refers to person’s active checking of memory and assessing the strength of knowledge

Memory control involves decisions concerning the manipulation and regulation of memory.

Question 26

What is memory self efficacy

Answer 26

Refers specifically to the Competence of one’s memory function and to the confidence one has in one’s ability to use memory effectively in various situations. It is a self evaluative construct and is distinct from general knowledge about memory systems.

Question 27

What determines normative and abnormal memory changes

Answer 27

Cavanaugh and Blanchard fields state from a functional perspective that one way to determine between change is whether it disrupts a person’s ability to perform daily living tasks. Normative changes hardly interrupt normal daily functioning. Effects that are harmful to ones personal safety is abnormal changes that need attention.

Question 28

What contribution does the multifaceted/ multiple intelligence approach make

Answer 28

It argues that people can be intelligent in different ways and that everyday intelligent behavior is an important part of intelligence.

Question 29

What theory did Robert Sternberg develop and how does he define intelligence

Answer 29

Developed the triarchic theory of intelligence.

He defined intelligence as the skills and knowledge needed for success in life according to ones own definition of success and within ones own sociocultural context.

Question 30

State the 3 types of intelligence that Robert Sternberg proposed

Answer 30

Analytical intelligence: refers to how a person processes and analyses info. It includes abstract thinking and logical reasoning. It involves mental processes like abstract planning strategy selection focused attention info processing and verbal logical skills

Creative intelligence: involves person’s ability to generate new ideas to apply existing knowledge to new problem.

Practical intelligence: concerns how a person reacts to the environment and involves the ability to adapt to or shape environment to make it acceptable.

Question 31

How does Howard gardner explain intelligence and what are the 8 intellengencies

Answer 31

Viewed as bio psychological ability to process info in order to solve problems or create products valuable in one’s culture.

Linguistic ability
Logical mathematical intelligence
Spatial intelligence
Musical intelligence
Bodily kinaesthetic intelligence
Interpersonal intelligence
Intrapersonal intelligence
Naturalistic intelligence

Question 32

Explain the Theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence developed by Raymond Cattell

Answer 32

Fluid intelligence (Gf) refers to the ability to solve new problems use logic in new situations and identity patterns. It refers to the ability to understand relationship between components of a problem and to use those relationships to solve the problem. It is largely a function of the CNS and relatively independent of Social influences and culturally based learning experiences.

Cystalized intelligence (Gc) refers to the ability to use skills knowledge and experience that one has learned or previously acquired. It involves the knowledge that a person accumulates during a life time.

Question 33

What are the findings regarding intelligence and ageing process

Answer 33

Classic ageing curve: intellectual functioning rose to a peak in early adulthood following a decline later on.

Classic ageing pattern: refers to certain intellicual abilities was also identified where the decline is especially dramatic in abilities related to fluid intelligence ( thinking abstractly reason identity pattern) these abilities are considered age sensitive abilities.

A decline in abilities related to crystallized intelligence ( sum of acquired knowledge) starts later then decline dramatically after 65 which are considered to be age insensitive.

Question 34

What are possible reasons why age related decline don’t have greater consequences

Answer 34

Performance at maximum level is seldom needed: the basic idea is that what people do in daily life reflects their typical level of functioning whereas cognitive measures attempt to measure maximal level of functioning.n

A shift from novel processing to reliance on accumulated knowledge: novel problem solving (Gf) become less important as more life problems are solved. The (Gc) is strengthened

Cognition may not be only determinant of success: factors such as personality emotional intelligence practical intelligence decision making competence analytic ability influence success.

Accomodation: individual may adapt to a situation. Many alter what they do or manner in which they do things in order to maintain level of functioning due to decline on irrelevant abilities.

Question 35

What are some findings regarding problem solving and decision making process with age

Answer 35

Use of strategies: attraction effect: many pieces of information in a content rich environment due to the tendency of younger adults to adopt analytical strategy in which each alternative is weighted carefully setting up possible interference effects from new info.

Older adults use global heuristics which are methods of finding things out for themselves and may not be so attracted to discreet new pieces of info as younger adults are.

Cognitive abilities: adult tend to perform better in practical everyday problem than abstract ones. Weakness in basic cognitive abilities should predict weakness in everyday cognitive performance.

Familiarity experience and knowledge: greater experience in terms of content and process allow them to appraise problem come up with strategy then enact that strategy. Older adults are disadvantaged when a familiar problem has a new twist or appearance when a premature decision leads to avoiding important info or using top down approach which means they don’t collect additional info due to assumption of own expertise. Younger adults use bottom up approach where they Collect much info before making a decision.

Question 36

What are some findings regarding problem solving and decision making process with age

Answer 36

Problem solving goals: when problem solving ability is defined by match between individuals personal goals for solving problems and strategies that are implemented to solve problems older adults are as effective as younger at resolving problems. Younger adults focus on competence or autonomy goals like career. With age focus is generative goals and older adults define everyday problem in terms of interpersonal goals like maintaining important relationship.

Problem solving context is the domain in which a problem occurs can affect an adult strategy selection. Older adults have more resources and therefore able to resolve problem quick.everyday problem solving performance depends on context of the problem and whether it’s relevant to problem solver

Emotional benefits: problem situations low in emotional significance refer to instrumental problem that occurs in daily life while problems high in emotional significance tend to be more interpersonal. The solution may be problem focused strategies by taking direct action. Cognitive analytic strategies where solving problem is thought through carefully. passive dependent strategies attempts to withdraw from problem and Avoidant strategy is denial of the problem. Emotion regulation strategies is managing emotions.

Question 37

What components of language comprehension are affected by ageing

Answer 37

Word recognition: involves activation of the meaning of written or spoken language. Vocabulary remain relatively intact across adult life or even increases with age. Word recognition and understanding of words in context generally are strong in older adults as in younger adults.

Sentence processing: involves analysis of sentence structure into coherent units. Segmentation is the process of breaking down a sentence into units such as phrases or clauses. Readers or listeners then assign lexical elements like verbs subject or object called thematic role assignment.

The construction of situation model: refer to the mental representation of the implied situation and making certain inferences from the text. This aspect of language seems resilient across the life span.

Question 38

What is the effortfulness hypothesis

Answer 38

States that sensory decline associated with ageing make word recognition more difficult so that extra effort is required for resolving lexical items.

Question 39

What is language production and the aspects of it affected by ageing

Answer 39

Language production refers to the usage of language in speech and writing.

Vocal output: findings suggest age related increases in speech disfluencies like hesitations repetition and pausing. Voice quality change include higher pitch diminished projection and amplitude with slowing articulation reaction time and pronunciation of words.

Word finding difficulty: pauses circumlocution empty speech and substitution errors reflects age related impairment in accessing and retrieving lexical info.

Syntactic and morphological processing: appears unaffected by ageing. The processing of syntactically complex sentences seems to decline with age reflected in speech and writing mainly the diversity of syntactic structure decline forming simpler sentences.

Pragmatics of language: encompass variety of conversational skills from opening and closing conversation maintaining and shifting topics and telling stories to modifying personal relationships conveying individual and group identity.

Question 40

What is elderspeak and the communication predicament model of ageing

Answer 40

A speech pattern involving simplifying one’s speech by leaving out complex words or talking in a patronising tone of voice.

Communication predicament model of ageing is that older adults are thought of as cognitively impaired leading younger people to talk to them in a simplified manner which can lead to

Infantilisation: to treat someone as if they were a child where the older persons loses the incentive to attempt to regain self sufficiency in basic activities of daily life.

Question 41

List some disease and disorders that effect aspects of language

Answer 41

Apraxia: a speech disorder in which a person has trouble saying what they want to say correctly and consistently.

Aphasia: the total or partial loss of the ability to use or understand language.

Dysarthia: a group of speech disorders caused by disturbances of the muscles of speech mechanism.

Question 42

What is expertise

Answer 42

Refers to having special skills knowledge or judgement in a particular area(s). This plays critical roles in society. An expert can be someone who is much better at a task than people who haven’t put effort into it.

Question 43

What are the views of what forms expertise

Answer 43

The classical perspective:

• the innatist view believe that experts are born and expertise is an innate characteristic.
• the environmentalist view is that experts are made.

The cognitive perspective:

1. Experts perceive meaningful patterns in Thier domain
2. Set of specific aptitudes or abilities comprise talent in a specific domain but notice that experience plays a role in individual differences where it’s believed that software or knowledge rather than hardware or aspects of cognition differentiate and experts.

The acquired expertise perspective: believed that expertise was an automatic consequence of lengthy experience and considered individuals with decades of full-time engagement in a domain to be experts.

The deliberate practice view: for a novice the Goal for accomplishing an activity is to reach a rapidly as possible satisfactory performance level which is stable and autonomous. Experts build up a wealth of knowledge about ways to solve problems. Proposes that hard work seperates great from the good.

A biological view: components of Gf working memory capacity and processing speed indicate a + relationship with expertise and predict success.

Question 44

How is wisdom defined

Answer 44

The ability of an individual to make sound decisions find correct or good answers to difficult and important life questions and give advice about the complex problems of everyday life and interpersonal relationships (APA)

The quality of having experience insight knowledge and good judgement (Oxford)

Practical decisions that lead to human flourishing

Is a mental capacity of combining intelligence with moral virtue.

Central definition: wisdom is multi dimensional and consists of cognitive insightful and compassionate components that are mutually interdependent and benefits the wise person others and society as a whole.

Question 45

What are the implicit theories of wisdom

Answer 45

Individuals know implicitly who and what is wise. Theorists investigate lay person’s beliefs or understanding of what wisdom entails.

Clayton and birren identify 3 dimensions
Cognition (knowledge experience and intelligence)
Reflection ( introspection intuition)
Compassion ( understanding empathy peace)

Holliday and Chandler found it include
Cognitive skills
Interpersonal skills
Social unobtrusiveness

Lay person perceives widow as mix of exceptional understanding of essences contexts and the self.
Judgement and communication skills
General competencies

Gluck and Bluck identify the cognitive conception group endorsed by cognitive characteristics and reflective characteristics
Integrative conception group endorsed affective compassionate characteristics like benevolence empathy love for humanity and concern for others.

Question 46

What are the explicit theories of wisdom

Answer 46

Viewpoint of experts theorists and researchers rather than lay person based on principles of psychology of human development.

A western approach: Berlin Wisdom Paradigm led by Paul Baltes define wisdom as expert level knowledge in the fundamental pragmatics of life. They believe it consists of 5 characteristics:
A. Factual knowledge about human nature and the life course
B. Procedural knowledge about ways of dealing with life’s problems
C. Life span contectualism which is an awareness of the many contexts of life
D. Value relativism and tolerance such as acknowledge individual Social and cultural differences in values and life priorities
E. Knowledge about handling uncertainty including limits of one’s own knowledge and the knowledge of the world at large.

An African approach: view wisdom more holistically as comprising the whole person including behavioural conduct in form of morality and compassion towards others.
Ubuntu which includes relatedness where foundational values inform member of society on to lead a wise life through serving others and environment which promotes pervasive spirit of caring and community harmony etc.

Oruka a Kenyan philosopher mentioned philosophic sagacity practised by sages who are versed in wisdom and traditions of people. A philosophical sage is both a sage and critical thinker who is wise and capable of being rational and critical in understanding or solving inconsistencies.

A culturally inclusive model: ardelt develop 3 dimensional wisdom model which integrates cognitive reflective and compassionate dimensions of wisdom.

1. The cognitive wisdom dimension entails desire to know truth and encompasses deep and thorough understanding of life regarding certain issues relating to ones own person who ones relationship with others including knowledge and acceptance of the +&- aspects of human nature.
2. Reflective wisdom dimension refers to ability to perceive phenomena and events from multiple perspectives including self awareness self insight examination to overcome subjectivity and projection.b
3. Compassionate wisdom dimension include more thorough understanding of life and the human condition combined with a reduction in self centereness.

Question 47

Which factors contribute to development of wisdom

Answer 47

• Cognitive abilities, expert specific conditions life experiences
• post operational thinking
• personality traits like openness to experience are more likely to be open to relativism and uncertainty of life. Empathy and compassion is important due to the ability to overcome automatic response in order to show concern
• wise people can integrate thinking feeling and acting into a coherent and holistic approach to a problem which views wisdom as cognitive analytic mode consisting of knowledge and abstract reasoning skills.
• Sternberg believed that wisdom is the application of tactic knowledge facilitated by values toward achieving a common good which happens through balance among intrapersonal interpersonal and extrapersonal interests to achieve a balance among adaptation to existing environment shaping of existing environment and selection of new environment.

Question 48

What developmental trajectories exist regarding wisdom and age

Answer 48

It may continue to increase across the life span
Remain stable from early adulthood into old age
Decrease after an initial increase in youth and young adulthood.

According to Margaret Mead who believe the world moved from pre figurative phase where elders knew and understood the world and could give authoritative advice through a co figurative phase where old and young has to learn to understand new world side by side where authority was divided equally. A post figurative phase where young understand the world better than the old and the authority has shifted from elder to younger.

Question 49

What is creativity

Answer 49

Refers to an ability or skill that’s original unique and appropriate to the situation. Creatives commonly display originality imagination and expressiveness and exceptional due to ability to create something new depict reality in new light and transcend conceptual boundaries.

Question 50

How can creativity be explained

Answer 50

Divergent thinking is defined as the ability to generate many ideas that are unique and useful where multiple ideas to a problem are given which is different from mainstream thinking.

It’s believed that creativity requires certain personality qualities and intrinsic motivation to pursue creative activities. Such quality include openness curiosity imaginativeness sensitivity and originality independence nonconformity unconventionality cognitive flexibility ambition.

Question 51

What is the relationship between creativity and ageing

Answer 51

Typical age curve is noted in most research. Max output in late 30s and decline from 60

Creative output varies across domains: in abstract domain like science creative productivity tends to peak at younger ages. In some disciplines peak occurs late that decline is negligible.

Individual differences occur in the age creativity paradigm:
Creative productivity can be a function of age at beginning of someone’s career.
Creative productivity may be a function of output rate
Relationship between age and creativity may be related to cognitive factors where experimental innovators work inductively drawing conclusions from accumulated knowledge.
Conseptual innovators work deductively where innovation is more theoretical based on general premises.

Enduring characteristics like talent drive continuity:

Number of years in a given career rather than the age of the individual: point of max creativity coincides with the point of max productivity. Individuals with largest number of works have greatest chance of creating masterpiece.

Swan song phenomenon: a resurgence of creative output stemming from final burst of creative energy.

Question 52

What factors may effect cognitive development in Adulthood

Answer 52

Health:Disease accelerate the rate of cognitive decline in later life. Diseases like diabetes cardiovascular disease perform worse on cognitive measures than age match control.
Terminal loop: a very rapid cognitive decline in the months before death.
Critical loss argues that some intellectual ability decline without predicting anything particular changes in specific indices are more likely to indicate imminence of death.

Sociodemographic factors: prolonged education higher socioeconomic status lengthy marriage to intelligent spouse exposure to stimulating environment etc throughout adulthood affect maintenance of cognitive functioning in old age.

Personality factors: positive self image internal sense of control positive feeling of self efficacy effective use of coping skills may combat decline in cognitive functioning.

Multilingualism: those speaking several languages test better in cognitive functioning. It allows flexibility of thought and is a channel for understanding another culture better.

Life style: having active life by being involved in community and family and stimulating mental activity contribute to cognitive maintenance. Healthy eating drinking and sleep as well as exercise are conductive to cognitive maintenance.

Experience of different stages of life: circumstances life experiences behavior pattern socioeconomic status lifestyle educational and recreational activities throughout life can affect cognitive abilities in old age

Question 53

State Jean Piaget theory of cognitive development in Adulthood mainly formal operational thought

Answer 53

Piaget believed that the development of intelligence stems from the emergence of increasingly complex structures which occurs through the principles of adaptation and organisation.

Adaptation: is process of adjusting ones thought processes. Assimilation refers to use of currently available knowledge to make sense of incoming info. accommodation involves changing one’s thoughts to adjust to new experiences.

Organisation: refers to fact that each specialised part is coordinated with the whole. Intelligence isn’t simply the accumulation of more knowledge but it’s a reorganization of greater knowledge to produce a different way of thinking.
Sensorimotor stage
Preoperational stage
Concrete operational stage
Formal operational stage to Piaget this stage ends cognitive development.

Question 54

What characterises the formal operational stage

Answer 54

It takes a hypothesis testing approach to problem solving. Hypothetic deductive reasoning involves forming a hypothesis and testing it until the hypothesis is either confirmed or rejected. The essence of formal thought is a way of generating abstract concepts and thinking in a systematic way.

Thinking occurs in one framework at a time
The goal is to arrive at one correct solution
It’s unconstrained by reality

Question 55

What is the neo-piagetian approach of postformal thought

Answer 55

Postformal thought is characterized by a recognition that truth may vary from situation to situation that solutions must be realistic to be reasonable that ambiguity and contradiction are the rule rather than the exception and that emotion and subjective factors usually play a role in thinking.

Question 56

What are some descriptions of the development of postformal thinking in Adulthood

Answer 56

Reflective judgement: in the 3 stages of the model young adults commonly don’t acknowledge and may not perceive that knowledge is uncertain. They don’t understand some problems may exist even when there isn’t a clear and correct answer this is termed pre reflective reasoning.

During stages 4-5 quasi reflective reasoning emerges where people begin to realise that nothing can be known for certain and are more likely to change conclusion based on situation and on evidence.

Stages 6-7 reflective thinking develop showing an increase understanding that people construct knowledge using evidence and argument after careful analysis of the problem or situation

Absolutist relativistic and dialectical thinking: adolescence and young adults use absolutist thinking which involves firmly believing that there’s only one Correct solution to a problem and personal experience provides truth. They think by logic one can determine absolute right and wrong.

Relativistic thinking involves realising that there are many sides to a situation and the right answer depends on circumstances.

Dialectical thinking involves seeing merits of the different viewpoints but can synthesise or integrate them into a workable solution.

Integration of emotion and logic: an ability to understand and synthesize another’s point of view is usually beneficial in resolving life problems. According to Lavouvie Vief adult tend to make decisions and analyse problem not only on logical grounds but pragmatic emotional and social grounds.

Question 57

Discuss Schaie and Willis stages of adult cognitive development

Answer 57

The achieving stage: young adults commonly switch focus from acquisition to application of knowledge related to achieving goals where one has to make important life changing decisions.

The responsible stage: adults who have mastery over cognitive skills for self monitoring have attained a degree of personal independence which requires application of cognitive skills in situations involving social responsibility this occurs when needs for a spouse and family develop.

The executive stage: individual entering organisation as presidents officials etc will require skills like responsibility for others monitoring organisational activity understanding structure and underlying dynamic. attainment here depends on exposure to opportunity that allows development and practice of relevant skills.

Reintergrative stage: the need to acquire knowledge declines. Information that elderly acquire and knowledge they apply become a function of their interests attitudes and values.

Reorganisational stage: activities engaged in to maximize quality of life with additional objective of not becoming a burden for the next generation. this requires the maintenance of reasonably high levels of cognitive competence. Maintaining flexible cognitive styles are needed to be able to restructure the context and content of life after retirement

The legacy creating stage: cognitive activities characteristic of this stage occur in anticipation of the end of a person’s life and begins with an effort at providing an oral history or explaining of family history and hueroon to next generation.

Question 58

Comment on the selective optimisation and compensation theory

Answer 58

Based on operation and coordination of selection of goals or behavior optimisation of the means to reach goals and compensating the use of substitute means when previously available means are lost or blocked.

Selection: refers to the process of specifying a particular pathway or set of pathways of development which includes narrowing down of possible alternatives and is a mechanism to generate new resources and higher developmental status. Elective selection is primarily driven by goals.
Loss based selection is a reorganization of goals indicated due to a loss in potential to reach desirable goals.

Optimisation: refers to acquisition application coordination and refinement of internal and external means involved in attaining higher levels of functioning and involves health behavior cognitive skills educational learning social support personality dimensions like control.

Compensation: is defined as counteracting losses in means previously employed in attaining goals by using alternative means to maintain functioning like external cues.