Chapter 5: Developing Humans Flashcards
What are the three major issues in developmental psychology, and how are they defined?
1.Nature and Nurture: Examines how genetic inheritance (nature) interacts with environmental experiences (nurture) to influence development.
2.Continuity and Stages: Investigates whether development is a gradual, continuous process (like an escalator) or occurs in distinct stages (like climbing a ladder).
3.Stability and Change: Explores which traits persist throughout life and which ones change as we grow.
What are chromosomes, DNA, and genes, and how do they relate to heredity?
Chromosomes: Threadlike structures made of DNA that contain genes.
DNA: Molecule holding genetic information essential for life.
Genes: Biochemical units of heredity in chromosomes, segments of DNA that dictate traits.
These elements enable heredity, the genetic transfer of traits from parents to offspring.
Explain the concept of epigenetics in relation to heredity and environment.
Explain the concept of epigenetics in relation to heredity and environment.
Epigenetics studies how environmental factors can activate or deactivate genes. Epigenetic marks, molecules triggered by the environment, can block or enhance gene expression. This explains how experiences, like stress or nutrition, influence genetic activity without altering DNA itself.
Describe the stages of prenatal development.
Zygote: A fertilized egg that undergoes rapid cell division during the first two weeks.
Embryo: The stage from 2 to 8 weeks post-conception when major organs and structures begin forming.
Fetus: From 9 weeks to birth, the developing organism grows and matures, preparing for life outside the womb
What are teratogens, and how can they affect prenatal development?
Teratogens are harmful agents, such as chemicals, drugs, or viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development, potentially causing serious damage. For example, exposure to alcohol can lead to Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), characterized by physical and mental abnormalities.
How does maturation influence physical development in infancy and childhood?
Maturation refers to the biological growth processes that drive orderly changes in behavior, largely independent of experience. For example, infants naturally progress from crawling to walking as their nervous system and muscles develop. Experience fine-tunes but does not initiate these milestones.
Explain Piaget’s view of cognitive development and his four stages.
Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 years): Learning through sensory experiences and actions.
Preoperational Stage (2–7 years): Developing language and imagination but lacking logical reasoning.
Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years): Beginning logical thinking about concrete events.
Formal Operational Stage (12+ years): Developing abstract and systematic reasoning abilities.
What is Vygotsky’s alternative to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
Vygotsky emphasized the social environment’s role in learning. He believed children learn and solve problems through interaction with others, using tools like language and cultural norms. Scaffolding, provided by adults or peers, helps children achieve higher levels of thinking.
Define theory of mind, and explain its development in children.
Theory of mind is the ability to understand that others have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs different from one’s own. Between ages 3 and 5, children begin to realize others may hold false beliefs, enabling more advanced social interactions and empathy.
What is attachment, and what are its different types?
Attachment is the emotional bond between a child and their caregiver.
Secure attachment: Child feels safe and explores confidently, seeking comfort when distressed.
Insecure attachment: Can be anxious-ambivalent (clingy and overly dependent) or avoidant (distant and independent).
Sensitive and responsive caregiving fosters secure attachment, which is vital for emotional development.
How do parenting styles impact child development?
Authoritative: Warm and firm; leads to high self-esteem and social competence.
Authoritarian: Strict and coercive; associated with low self-esteem and social skills.
Permissive: Indulgent and unrestrictive; results in aggression and immaturity.
Neglectful: Uninvolved; leads to poor academic and social outcomes.
What is adolescence, and what are key changes during this period?
Adolescence is the transition from childhood to adulthood.
Physical: Puberty and sexual maturation.
Cognitive: Development of abstract reasoning and moral thinking.
Social: Identity formation and peer influence.
The frontal lobe matures slower than the emotional limbic system, contributing to impulsive and risk-taking behaviors.
Describe the changes in memory across adulthood.
Early adulthood: Learning and memory peak.
Middle adulthood: Slight decline in ability to recall information, but recognition remains stable.
Late adulthood: Memory for meaningful information remains strong, but speed of processing and working memory decline. Terminal decline in cognition often occurs in the final years of life.
What is the role of critical periods in development, and how do they affect learning?
Critical periods are specific times during development when certain skills or abilities, such as language or vision, are most easily learned. For example, if children are not exposed to language during early childhood, their ability to fully acquire it may be permanently impaired.
What are reflexes in newborns, and why are they important?
Reflexes are automatic responses in newborns that support survival, such as the rooting reflex (turning toward a touch on the cheek to find food) and the grasping reflex (clinging to an object). These reflexes are essential for immediate survival and indicate healthy neurological development.
