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Psych 275 > Chapter 5 > Flashcards

Chapter 5 Flashcards

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1
Q

Describe neural stains selectivity. Which tissue components does it stain

A
  • they are selective
  • > stains some tissue components but not others

-stains the nucleus, ribosomes and the cell membrane

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2
Q

What are the steps in preparing a brain tissue

A

1) perfusion
- >remove blood

2) Hardening
- >freezing or paraffin embedding

3) Slicing
- >use a microtome

4) Mounting
- >use albumen

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3
Q

What is a Golgi stain used for and how much of the structure does it show

A
  • Golgi stain is a silver chromate compound
  • > stains neurons black
  • note not all neurons pick up the stain
  • > it does not show INTRACELLULAR details
  • > just shows shape and size of neurons
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4
Q

What is a nissil stain used for and how much of the structure does it actually show

A
  • penetrates ALL cells
  • > Golgi only penetrates some
  • stains ribosomes, soma and structures within the neuron

-it is a cresyl violet compound

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5
Q

Describe the general compound used in electron microscopy. What it does and how detailed it is

A

-electron microscopes can provide greater magnification as it uses beam of electrons

  • note slices are coated with electron absorbing substance(gold)
  • > electron passes through slice
  • note minute cellular details
  • > difficult to assess general structure
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6
Q

What is anterograde tracing? How is it done

A
  • it looks at where do axons go
  • amino acids with radioactive hydrogen isotopes are taken into cell bodies
  • > then put into proteins
  • > can then be used to measure radioactivity in axon terminals
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7
Q

What is retrograde tracing? How is it done?

A
  • it is used to see where axons come from
  • HRP is taken up by axon terminals
  • > wait a few days
  • HRP substrate staining results in a black color
  • > black identifies the cell body locations
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8
Q

What are contrast X-rays used for?

A
  • brain has too many overlapping structures absorbing X-rays to the same degree
  • > so to let them stand out, inject radiopaque material into structure of interest
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9
Q

What is angiograpy

A
  • dye injected into carotid artery

- >reveals enlarged or displaced blood vessels

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10
Q

What is pneumoencephalography

A
  • air injected into the csf

- identifies enlarged or displaced ventricles

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11
Q

Describe a CT scan and its image sharpness. What abnormalities is it used to visualize?

A
  • it does not have a sharp image
  • > as there is a low resolution axial image

Used to visualize structural abnormalities such as:

  • > tumours
  • > stroke damage
  • > concussions
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12
Q

What compound is used for PET scans and how does this compound interact with electrons? How does the scanner pick up these signals?

A
  • 2-deoxyglucose is injected in the carotid artery
  • > this structure is similar to glucose
  • > it can’t be metabolized so it accumulates in active cells
  • 2-dg interacts with electrons to produce photons(gamma rays)
  • the scanner then detects the photons and how many gamma rays are coming from a specific region
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13
Q

What is Pet used for and describe its spatial and temporal resolution. Does it have structural information.

A
  • Pet is used for:
  • > activity during a specific task
  • > can also identity non activity measures such as: neurotransmitters, receptors, transporters and ions.
  • note it has no structural information
  • > so poor spatial resolution and no temporal resolution
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14
Q

Describe MRI and its spatial resolution capabilities. What planes can it produce and does it contain ferrous metal?

A

MRI has strong magnetic fields pass through the brain

  • > it aligns hydrogen atoms
  • > Rf pulse causes hydrogen atoms to emit electromagnetic frequency
  • > scanner picks up these frequencies
  • note MRI has high spatial resolution
  • > it produces horizontal, coronal and sagittal planes

-no ferrous metals are used

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15
Q

Describe the spatial resolution and temporal resolution of fMRI

A
  • high spatial resolution and temporal resolution

- >the temporal resolution is poor but better than PET

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16
Q

What does BOLD stand for and does it have anything to do with structure or just neural activity. How does it relate to oxygenated hemoglobin or deoxyhemoglobin.

A
  • Blood oxygen level dependant signal
  • > it correlates with neural activity and not structure

-as oxygenated hemoglobin goes up, the MRI intensity increases

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17
Q

What is DTI used for?How does it work?

A
  • it is used to identity white matter tracts in the brain
  • > connections among structures
  • water molecules move in the same direction in white matter
  • > outside of white matter, the direction of water molecule movement is referred to as random diffusion
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18
Q

What is TMS? Is it invasive? How does it work?

A
  • it disrupts neural activity by placing magnetic field over the skull during tasks
  • > it can assess the functions of different cortical areas
  • > note current is directly applied to scalp

-it is noninvasive

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19
Q

How is electrical signal in EEG measured. Does signal of an eeg decay over space and time?

A
  • it is measured from the scalp
  • > the signal is the difference in electric potential between two large scalp electrodes

-note the signal does decay from source over space and time

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20
Q

What do EEG waves reflect a sum of? Which electrical events are included in this EEG reading?

A
  • EPSP
  • IPSP
  • eye movements
  • scalp muscle movements
  • skin
  • blood flow
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21
Q

What does EEG represent a total output of. Does it detect post-synaptic potentials?

A
  • it measures the voltage output of the averaged activity of a large number of cortical neurons
  • yes it does detect post synaptic potentials
  • > this represents the input of the neural population
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22
Q

Event related potential vs Rhythmic activity measurements in EEG

A

Event related potential

  • > done for almost anything
  • > as long as it can be done repeatedly

Rhythmic activity

  • > different frequencies associated with different functions
  • > there is synchronization or desynchronization of neural activity across the brain
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23
Q

Describe the different EEG wave forms associated with consciousness

A

Aroused state

  • > beta waves
  • > low amplitude but fast EEG activity

Relaxed/awake state

  • > alpha waves
  • > high amplitude but slow EEG activity

Deep sleep

  • > slow oscillation waves
  • > high amplitude but slow EEG activity

Epilepsy
->simply spikes

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24
Q

Describe the temporal and spatial resolution of scalp EEG

A

-high temporal resolution and poor spatial resolution

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25
Q

How to increase signal to noise ratio for EEG

A

-signal-response stimulus
-noise=background EEG
to increase signal to noise ratio
->measure repeated event related potential to same stimuli
->then average it out

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26
Q

What is MEG? How does it work? Is it noninvasive?Note that neural currents in the scalp produce weak magnetic fields. This may help in answering the w question.

A
  • it is noninvasive

- it measures magnetic fields generated from scalp due to neural activity

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27
Q

How is the temporal resolution of MEG and how is the spatial resolution. Compare temporal to fMRI and spatial to EEG

A
  • it has better temporal resolution than fMRI
  • it has better spatial resolution or accuracy than EEG
  • > so it can actually localize the source of epilepsy
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28
Q

What does Electromyography(EMG) measure? How does it measure this?

A
  • it measures somatic and sympathetic nervous system
  • it measures this through muscle tension
  • > change in voltage between 2 electrodes on large muscle over skin
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29
Q

How do you read the muscle tension on EMG

A
  • it is measured through the amplitude of signals

- >height indicates the number of spikes in the muscle unit

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30
Q

What are clinical uses of EMG

A
  • it is used for diagnoses of neuromuscular problems

- also used for biofeedback

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31
Q

What does the electrooculography (EOG)measure? What part of the nervous system?

A

-it measures the somatic nervous system

32
Q

How does EOG work? Does it measure brain response to visual stimuli?

A
  • place four electrodes around the eye
  • > front of the eye is more positive than the back
  • it does not measure brain response to visual stimuli
33
Q

What is the purpose of ECG? How is it done?

A
  • it measures heart rate

- electrodes are placed on the chest to measure this heart rate

34
Q

How does a sphygmomanometer work?

A
  • it measures blood pressure

- peak pressure during systole over minimum pressure during diastole

35
Q

What is aspiration? How does this sort of lesion work? How does it leave white matter?

A
  • it removes cortical tissue

- >leaves white matter underling relatively in tact

36
Q

What is an electrolytic lesion?

A
  • lesion that works through high radio frequency currents
  • > more current=more damage

-tissue is destroyed by heat

37
Q

How do knife cuts work? Does it remove tissue? How can it affect epilepsy?

A
  • tracts are severed
  • specifically only removes tracts and not TISSUE
  • it can stop epilepsy from spreading
38
Q

Describe the two methods of reversible lesions

A

Lidocaine

  • > closes sodium channels
  • > no action potentials

Cryogenic blockade

  • > tissue is temporarily cooled
  • > this stops neural activity
39
Q

Which lesion is more mild? Bilateral or Unilateral>

A
  • unilateral lesion is more mild

- >but most use bilateral

40
Q

Disadvantages of lesion effect intepretation

A
  • it is misleading
  • impossible to completely destroy region of interest
  • other neural tissues can be affected as axon tracts are connected to each other
  • one brain area may not necessarily be associated with one behaviour
41
Q

What is the function of 6-hydroxydopamine? Note this is a chemical lesion

A
  • it is a neurotoxin

- >selectively kills dopamine and norepinephrine neurons

42
Q

What is the function of kainic acid/ibotenic acid?

A
  • it destroys neuronal cell bodies at site of injection

- leaves axons passing through site intact

43
Q

How does electric stimulation work?

A
  • application of small electrical current via bipolar electrode
  • > it doesn’t kill cells
  • > effects depend on amount of current, location of electrode and environment
44
Q

Can electric stimulation be used to identity pathways?How? Are the effects immediate?

A
  • yes
  • > if stimulation in one area evokes a response in another area
  • the effects are immediate
45
Q

How is electrical stimulation used in surgery

A

-it is used to test for function of area under operation

46
Q

What changes do intracellular unit recordings measure? Where is the microelectrode placed?

A
  • they measure changes in membrane potential over time by msec
  • the microelectrode is placed inside a single neuron
47
Q

Where is the extracellular unit recording? What do the signals look like?What do spikes of the same amplitude mean? Does it have info on the membrane potential?

A
  • it is placed near outside of the neuron
  • signals are a series of spikes
  • > each spike is an action potential from a nearby neuron
  • spikes of the same amplitude comes from the same neuron
  • note it does not have any info on the membrane potential
48
Q

What are multiple unit recordings?What does it indicate?Are the electrode tips larger than the microelectrode?

A
  • it indicates a rate of firing in the vicinity of the electrode tip
  • electrode tips are larger than the microelectrode
49
Q

What is the multiple unit recording’s device relation to action potentials?

A
  • it picks up action potential from many nearby neurons
  • > integrates these signals
  • > height of curve indicates number of action potentials per unit of time
50
Q

What are intracranial EEG recording devices?How are their spatial and temporal resolution

A
  • they are implanted electrodes
  • > stereotaxic implant

-they have high spatial and temporal resolution

51
Q

What are the different routes that drugs can be put into the body. Note this refers to psychopharmacological methods.

A

Intragastric

  • > gavage
  • > fed the drug
  • > tube in stomach

Intraperotineal
->abdomen

Intravenous

Subcutaneous
->fatty tissue under the skin

Intramuscular

52
Q

Can all drugs pass through the BBB? If not, how would they be administered?

A
  • not all drugs can pass the BBB
  • so they are done through microinjections in the brain
  • > referred to as cannula
  • > this can be intracranial or intraventricular
53
Q

How do you measure chemical activity in the brain during behavioural experiments?

A

-it is done through in vivo cerebral micro dialysis

54
Q

What does in vivo cerebral microdialysis do? What is the permeability of the tube used in in vivo cerebral microdialysis

A
  • it measures extracellular small molecules in BEHAVING animals
  • the tube is semipermeable membrane with the brain
  • > it has artificial CSF, diffusing into EC space
  • > small molecules that are high in concentration diffuse into the tube and collect for measurements
55
Q

How can small molecule neurotransmitters be located in the brain?

A

-it can be located by looking for the enzymes that synthesize those neurotransmitters

56
Q

What is immunocytochemistry?

A
  • they are antibodies for specific proteins of interest
  • antibodies attach to proteins of interest and are labeled with radioactivity
  • > the substrate colour changes or the dye does
  • > analyze this under the microscope
57
Q

What is in situ hybridization

A
  • it is the process of locating peptides and proteins
  • there are RNA sequences complementary to the mRNA of interest
  • > complementary sequence binds creating hybrid mRNA
58
Q

What are gene knockout techniques

A
  • it is knocking out a specific gene

- seeing the behavioural anomalies that result due to the knock out

59
Q

What are gene replacement techniques

A
  • it involves replacing one gene with another

- >can result in genetically related diseases

60
Q

What are transgenic animals? What are they an example of?

A
  • they are animals with genetic info from different species implanted
  • > can turn on or off genes

-note transgenic animals are an example of gene replacement techniques

61
Q

What are opsins

A
  • they are light gated ion channels
  • > can induce ipsp or epsp
  • > activated by different wavelengths of light
62
Q

How is optogenetics done?

A

-an optic fibre is implanted into the brain

63
Q

What is Brainbow? How is it done?Is this procedure really useful for connectomics, the study of neural pathways?

A
  • it is used to distinguish individual neurons from each other
  • > with different colors of fluorescence
  • > uses derivatives of GFP that produce up to 100 different hues
  • insert GFP into DNA of developing neurons
  • > each neuron then produces a different hue

-yes, this process is really useful for the study of nerual pathways or connectomics

64
Q

What is neuropsychological testing? Is it time consuming?

A
  • it is where a neurologist assesses psychologocial deficits of patients with brain damage
  • > serves as a basis for where to go next in terms of care or counselling

-yes it is time consuming

65
Q

Describe the single test approach in neuropsychological testing? When was this developed?

A
  • it was developed before the 1950s

- >it wasn’t sensitive to variability of damage and deficits

66
Q

Describe the standardized test battery of neuropsychological testing. When was this developed.

A
  • it was developed after the 1960s
  • if there was an aggregate score below threshold
  • > then the patient was assumed to have brain damage

-but could not distinguish psychiatric issues from brain damage

67
Q

Describe the customized test battery and when it was developed? How does it differ from standardized battery tests?

A
  • it was also developed in the 1960s
  • it starts out with a standardized test
  • > on top of that the score is used to customize subsequent tests
  • > reveal the specific nature of the damage
68
Q

Give an example differing standardized battery tests from customized battery tests in terms of memory

A

Standardized
->it just showed you have a memory problem

Custom

  • > it showed that you had a memory problem
  • > but also showed what type of memory problem you had
  • > so for example, short term memory loss vs long term memory loss
69
Q

Are general intelligence tests or IQ tests a good assessment of brain damage?

A

-No

70
Q

Describe the Weschler adult intelligence scale? How many subtests were given out? What tested short term memory? Did they test for long term verbal memory and if so how?

A
  • this test had 1 1 subtests
  • the short term memory was tested by a digit span
  • there was a long term verbal memory information test given out
71
Q

Let’s say a child got a low verbal score in WAIS. What would be another way to test that kids language ability?

A
  • test that kids ability through a token test
  • basically 20 tokens
  • > 2 different shapes
  • > 2 different sizes
  • > 5 different colours
  • subjects carry out the tasks with increasing difficulty
  • > click on the shapes, colours and sizes that the experimenter asks of you
72
Q

What does sodium amytal test? What else does this test go by?

A
  • it tests for language lateralization

- >it is also referred to as the WADA test

73
Q

Give a description of how the WADA test would go with injections of sodium amytal into the ipsilateral dominant language hemisphere and the contralateral non-dominant language hemisphere.

A

After ipsilateral injections in the dominant language hemisphere
->patient would become mute and would not be able to speak

After contralateral injections in the non-dominant language hemisphere
->patient makes minor speech errors

74
Q

What kind of a lesion is the sodium amytal test? Is it invaisve?

A
  • it is a reversible lesion
  • it is also invasive
  • > usually used prior to brain surgery to test the dominant side
75
Q

Describe the wisconsin card sorting test

A
  • 4 different shape
  • > different number of each shape
  • 4 different colours
  • subjects are asked to sort the deck in 4 different piles
  • > doesn’t know the basis of sorting
  • > the subject is then told that the basis of the sorting rule is switched but they weren’t warned
76
Q

How do those individuals with frontal lobe lesions adapt to the changing rules of the WIsconsin card sorting test. And how can they be described in terms of their perseverance?

A
  • those with these lesions adapt poorly to changing rules

- >they also persevere longer even after they know their sorting of the cards is incorrect

77
Q

How do those with frontal lobe lesions do when presented with the Stroop task

A
  • their reaction times are slower

- their accuracy are slower as well

Psych 275 (4 decks)

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