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Linguistics 111 > Chapter 5 > Flashcards

Chapter 5 Flashcards

1
Q

Syntax

A
  • grammar

- the system of rules and categories that accounts for phrase, clause and sentence formation

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2
Q

Syntactic Units

A
  1. Phrase
  2. Clause
  3. Sentence
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3
Q

Phrase

A
  • a combination of words that form a syntactic unit with cohesive meaning
  • ex) “the beautiful house”, “a turkey”
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4
Q

Clause

A
  • a combination of phrases that has to include a subject (doer) and predicate (action)
  • ex) “she asked if I (subject) liked (predicate) the beautiful house”
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5
Q

Sentence

A
  • often used synonymously with clause

- “I told John that I like that house” (2 clauses)

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6
Q

Prescriptive Grammar

A
  • found in language grammars were particular grammar rules are presented as correct and their violations or deviations form them are considered wrong
  • ex) “I am not” –> “I’m not” –> “I ain’t”
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7
Q

Descriptive Grammar

A
  • attempt to describe what is actually happening in the use of language by native speakers
  • “ain’t” becomes acceptable
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8
Q

Lexical Categories

A
  • also known as word class, lexical class, part of speech
  • when a word is created it immediately acquires a lexical category
  • open and closed categories
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9
Q

Syntactic Categories Def.

A
  • words as they function in sentences
  • overlap with lexical categories, but there are some differences
  • was of defining the word’s category (meaning, inflection, distribution)
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10
Q

Traditional Lexical Categories in English

A
  1. Nouns
  2. Verbs
  3. Adjective
  4. Adverb
  5. Pronoun
  6. Preposition
  7. Conjunction
  8. Interjections
  9. Numeral
  10. Particle
  11. Article
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11
Q

Noun

A

meaning: a thing
inflection: -s, ‘s
ex) Canada, girl

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12
Q

Verb

A

meaning: action
inflection: -s, -ed, -ing
ex) repeat, study

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13
Q

Adjective

A

meaning: quality
inflection: -er, -est
ex) dark, quick

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14
Q

Adverb

A

meaning: action quality
inflection: -er, -est, -ly
ex) quickly, fast

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15
Q

Pronoun

A

meaning: substitute
inflection: n/a
ex) this, his, her

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16
Q

Preposition

A

meaning: relationships
inflection: n/a
ex) to, in, with, on

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17
Q

Conjunctions

A

meaning: relationships
inflection: n/a
ex) and, since, when

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18
Q

Interjections

A

meaning: emotions and filled in pauses
inflection: n/a
ex) oh, ouch, um, err

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19
Q

Numeral

A

meaning: numbers
inflection: n/a
ex) fifth, five

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20
Q

Particle

A

meaning: n/a
inflection: n/a
ex) yes, no

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21
Q

Article

A

meaning: specific/nonspecific
inflection: n/a
ex) a, an, the

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22
Q

Open Lexical Categories

A
  • acquire new members regularly
  • “content words” and “lexical words”
  • nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs
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23
Q

Closed Lexical Categories

A
  • don’t acquire new word regularly
  • “function words” or “grammar words”
  • articles, prepositions, conjunctions, aux verbs, pronouns
  • exception: “xe, xem, xyr” (gender neutral pronouns)
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24
Q

Meaning

A
  • what school grammars traditionally relied on
  • noun= person, place, thing
  • adjective= quality/description word
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25
Q

Problems with Meaning

A
  1. the same word can belong to different categories without any appreciable change in meaning
  2. many nouns can be readily converted into verbs, sometimes with various meanings
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26
Q

Inflection

A
  • different lexical categories have their own inflectional pattern (paradigms)
  • a modification in the word to express different grammatical categories such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood
  • nouns= -s
  • verbs = -s, -ed, -ing
  • adjectives, adverbs= (-er, -est)
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27
Q

Problems with Inflection

A
  • not a sufficient criterion to distinguish adverbs from adjectives
  • P, Adv, Det, Dgr, Con, are not inflected
  • overlapping forms across inflected categories
28
Q

Lexical

A
  • form their own phrases

- can be head

29
Q

Non-lexical

A
  • can’t form their own phrases

- can’t be head

30
Q

Syntactic Categories

A
  1. Noun (N)
  2. Verb (V)
  3. Adjective (A)
  4. Adverb (Adv)
  5. Preposition (P)
31
Q

Adjectives

A
  • describe a noun quality
  • typical derivat: “-ous”, “-ful”
  • function in a sentence: attribute or part of predicate
32
Q

Adverbs

A
  • verb characteristics
  • typical derivat: “-ly” or none
  • function in a sentence: modifiers
33
Q

Non-Lexical Categories

A
  • occur with and modify lexical categories
    1. Determiners
    2. Degree Words
    3. Auxiliary
    4. Conjunctions
    5. Complementizers
    6. Specifiers
34
Q

Specifiers

A
  • are function words that occur at the beginning of a phrase (left side)
  • Determiners and Degree words
35
Q

Determiners (Det)

A
  • occur before a noun in a noun phrase
  • articles (“the”, “a”)
  • particles (“no” –> “no money”)
  • possessive determiner (“my”, “his”)
  • demonstrative determiner (“this”, “these”)
  • wh-determiner (“which house”, “whose book”)
  • there can only be one determiner for each phrase
36
Q

Degree words (Deg)

A
  • describe the degree of an adverb or adjective
  • only found at the beginning
  • “too, so, very, more, quite, highly, strongly”
  • do not modify verbs
37
Q

Auxilaries (Aux)

A
  • traditional grammar call them helper or helping verbs or grammar verbs
  • they can’t be the only verb in the sentence
  • always followed by a lexical verb
  • can be modal or non-modal
38
Q

Non-Modal Aux

A
  • HAVE: used to form tense forms
  • BE: used to form progressive (I am..) and passives (I was..)
  • DO: used to form negative sentences and some questions (don’t, do?)
39
Q

Modal Aux

A
  • I MUST, SHOULD, CAN, WOULD, COULD, WILL, MAY, MIGHT

- if you have a modal and non-modal Aux in a clause, the modal Aux comes first

40
Q

Conjunctions (Conj)

A
  • conjoin phrases of identical nature (AND, OR, BUT)
41
Q

Complementizers (C)

A
  • occur at the beginning of an embedded clause (THAT, WHILE, IF)
  • embedded clause (dependent)
  • if-clause can’t appear on its own
42
Q

Constituency Tests

A
  1. Movement Test
  2. Replacement Test
  3. Question Test
  4. Coordination Test
43
Q

Movement Test

A
  • every group of words that forms a constituent should be moveable together
  • doesn’t always work that well for English because English has a strict word order
44
Q

Replacement Test

A
  • every group of words that forms a constituent can be replaced by a pro-form (“it”)
45
Q

Question Test

A
  • every group of words that form a constituent can be an answer to a question
46
Q

Coordination Test

A
  • every group of words that forms a constituent (a phrase) can be conjoined with a similar one with the help of coordinate conjunction
47
Q

Phrase Structure

A
  • heads, specifiers, complements
  • PS rules: NP, VP, AP, PP
  • each phrase has a word called it’s head (N, V, A, P)
    ex) his interesting books
  • there could be phrases that have only the head
    ex) Martha cooks
48
Q

head

A

links it to the rest of the sentence

49
Q

Noun Phrase

A
  • nouns = heads
  • can replace the constituent with any noun or “it” but not an adj. or det.
  • can only be replaced by a noun-like object
    NP –> (Det) (Adj) N
50
Q

Phrase Structure Rule (PSR)

A
  • the rules used to generate the structure of our sentences in the grammar
51
Q

Adjectival Phrase

A

AdjP –> (Deg)(AdvP) Adj

  • can consist of just one adjective
  • can have an AdjP with only one word (Adj. Head) that is embedded within a noun phrase
52
Q

Verb Phrases

A 
VP --> V (NP)
- transitive: requires an object
- intransitive: verbs that can occur by themselves 
- adverbs modify verbs
VP --> (AdvP) V (NP) (AdvP)
53
Q

Adverb Phrase

A
  • adverbs can be modified by a deg. or another verb

AdvP –> (Deg) Adv

54
Q

Prepositional Phrase

A

PP –> P NP

  • distributional criterion = followed by a NP
  • similar to VP, the head is first
55
Q

Phrasal Verbs

A
  • words that look like prepositions but are called particles

- do not form a phrase with a following NP

56
Q

Objects

A
  1. no verb complement (no object (complement))
  2. direct object verb has a NP complement
    - ex) “boys love hockey”
  3. indirect and direct object NP complements
    - ex) “she wrote [(me) (a letter)]”
  4. predicate with adjective verb complement
    - with verbs: BE, SEEM, SMELL, LOOK, TASTE, BECOME
    - ex) “the game became difficult”
57
Q

Complementary Distribution

A
  • tense is expressed on V only when there is no aux
  • Aux doesn’t belong to VP it has separate slot
    [+past] and [-past]
58
Q

Position Aux

A
  • always there since the tense feature needs to originate somewhere
59
Q

Word Aux

A
  • not always there
  • since [+past] needs to be expressed somewhere it will move to the next available host, which is V
  • -> V: “-ed” or “-s”
60
Q

More than One Aux

A
  • “He HAS BEEN playing soccer”
  • only the first aux bears tense
  • could treat non-tense bearing Aux as another V
  • can add another aux to tree
61
Q

Complex Phrases: Conjunctions

A
  • conjoined phrases of the same kind
  • NP+NP: “Peter and Mary”
  • PP+PP: “on the house but for the guests”
  • VP+VP: “eat a cake and sing”
  • AdjP+AdjP: silent but deadly”
  • AdvP+AdvP: “slowly and carefully”
  • S+S: “Jane cooked a wonderful turkey and Peter made dessert”

XP –> XP conj. XP

62
Q

Complex Phrases: Complementizers

A
  • connect two clauses where one is in same way dependent on the other
  • can be NP: “Peter kissed many girls”
  • can be PP: “Peter wonder about girls”
  • can be clauses: “Peter wondered where he should kiss the girl”

CP –> C S

63
Q

Interrogatives

A
  • sentences we used when we ask questions
    1. Closed Interrogatives (yes-no)
    2. Open Interrogatives (wh-questions)
64
Q

Closed Interrogatives

A
  • Yes-No: “did Peter kiss the girl?”
  • do-insertion
  • -> these questions are formed by inserting an Aux “do” in front of the subject position
65
Q

Subject-Auxillary Inversion

A
  • the moment to derive the order for yes/no questions
66
Q

Transformations

A
  • derive language-specific word orders to non-default sentences
67
Q

Open Interrogatives

A
  • wh-questions
  • formed by using a question pronoun (who, what, etc)
  • ex) “what has Peter written?” “who has written a book?”

Linguistics 111 (3 decks)

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