Chapter 5

Question 1

sensation

Answer 1

the detection of energy emitted or reflected by physical objects

Question 2

perception

Answer 2

when the brain figures things out and implements sensory info

Question 3

When you see an object, you are seeing

Answer 3

light photons

Question 4

Attention

Answer 4

The act of focusing on particular info

Question 5

Inattentional blindness

Answer 5

When you are too busy paying attention to one thing that you miss another thing in plain sight

Question 6

Explain the video and the fight study

Answer 6

Demonstrate inattentional blindness- gorilla was not noticed because you focused attention on counting basketball players, fight was not noticed because you were too busy focusing on counting the number of head touches

Question 7

blindsight

Answer 7

the ability to respond to visual information without consciously seeing it

Question 8

Explain the example of the man who managed to walk down the hall even though he was blind

Answer 8

Blindsight- he turned even though he couldn’t see anything, but due to blindsight, he was still able to process where objects were

Question 9

Subliminal perception

Answer 9

sensory signals responds but no consciousness (subtle or short)

Question 10

Sensory coding

Answer 10

translation of physical properties of stimuli into neural signals

Question 11

Trace the path of physical stimuli

Answer 11

perception cells -> neural impulse -> thalamus -> parietal cortex

Question 12

Sensory adaptation

Answer 12

Reduction/disappearance of sensory responsiveness when situation is unchanging; You do not experience the world as is, rather more so as the World is trying to give you usefulness Example: Granite city might smell at first, but over time, you get used to the smell

Question 13

If a light reflects no photons, it’s

Answer 13

invisible

Question 14

What if a light absorbs all photons?

Answer 14

it’s a black hole

Question 15

Hue is determined by

Answer 15

wavelength

Question 16

Brightness is determined by

Answer 16

amplitude - intensity or energy in light waves

Question 17

sclera

Answer 17

bounces light off

Question 18

cornea

Answer 18

transparent dome, responsible for 2/3 of focusing

Question 19

iris

Answer 19

determines the color of eyes, controls amount of light let in to retina and pupil

Question 20

lens

Answer 20

accountable for 1/3 of focusing by changing shape, lens get rigid with age, which is why older adults become farsighted

Question 21

But why are images in the eye upside down?

Answer 21

Photos hit upside down but your brain flips it back for you via perception: sensation is upside down

Question 22

Rod cells

Answer 22

no color, high sensitivity, located around outside

Question 23

Cone Cells

Answer 23

sensitive to color, low sensitivity, located around the center

Question 24

Describe how light is processed by eye:

Answer 24

light causes rod and cone cells to fire -> bipolar neurons -> ganglion cells -> axons wind together to form the optic nerve

Question 25

Blindspot

Answer 25

Near fovea

Question 26

Feature detectors

Answer 26

cells in visual cortex sensitive to specific features of the environment

Question 27

Types of cones

Answer 27

3 types, RGB

Question 28

Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory

Answer 28

cones for RGB unless color blind; short cones -> blue medium cones -> green long cones -> red

Question 29

Opponent-Process theory

Answer 29

The visual system treats pairs of colors as opposing on/off “switches” Red/Green Blue/Yellow Black/White (either on or off, one or the other)

Question 30

Gestalt

Answer 30

See everything as a whole, see the world as it is useful

Question 31

Law of Proximity

Answer 31

You see stimuli near each other as something

Question 32

Law of Similarity

Answer 32

You see things that are similar as one object

Question 33

Law of Closure

Answer 33

You tend to see forms enclosed and ignore gaps

Question 34

Law of Good Continuation

Answer 34

When lines intersect, we group parts into one continual line with minimal changes

Question 35

Famous Psychologists Behaviorists

Answer 35

Watson, Skinner

Question 36

Learning is

Answer 36

how we adapt to our environment; a relatively permanent change in organism’s behavior due to change (think dog and mud)

Question 37

Behaviorist Movement deduced that

Answer 37

Learning is always the result of direct experience, should focus on only observable phenomena

Question 38

The Black Box

Answer 38

inputs -> black box (mind) -> outputs

Question 39

Classical conditioning

Answer 39

Linking two stimuli to make an association (end of class -> start packing bags) Basically, you pair a neutral stimulus (0.5 seconds apart works best conditioned stimulus before unconditioned stimulus) with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit an unconditioned response. Over time, the neutral stimulus on its own will elicit the unconditioned response, to which it will become a conditioned stimulus and the response the conditioned response.

Question 40

Pavlov’s Dog experiment

Answer 40

dogs will salivate for other reasons by associating certain behavior with getting a treat

Question 41

Unconditional stimulus

Answer 41

something that’s never initially learned - drooling

Question 42

Neutral stimulus

Answer 42

something one is not experienced to react in - ie bells

Question 43

Neutral before unconditional stimulus will

Answer 43

eventually become a conditioned stimulus although conditioned response tends to be a little smaller

Question 44

Watson & Little Albert

Answer 44

an unconditional stimulus was a loud noise which was correlated with the unconditional response of fear/crying; as a result he cried when he saw rats and furry things

Question 45

Discrimination

Answer 45

If you can perceive a difference in two stimuli, you learn to respond to them differently

Question 46

Classical conditioning works best when

Answer 46

the stimulus and response have the type of relationship that would lead you to believe that the stimulus caused the response, but there must be a delay

Question 47

Garcia Effect

Answer 47

All stimuli are not created equal -> learning is constrained by our biology; I can’t make you exactly fear a chair

Question 48

Watson ended up

Answer 48

going into advertising and pairing products with other things that would make you feel good (ie scandy women and cars)

Question 49

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Answer 49

rewarded behavior is likely to occur (ie whining)

Question 50

Reinforcement (explain positive and negative)

Answer 50

Anything that strengthens behavior: positive reinforcement: add a pleasurable stimulus negative reinforcement: take away a bad stimulus such as seatbelt noise or headache

Question 51

Describe an absolute threshold

Answer 51

The absolute threshold is the minimum quantity of stimulus needed to occur before sensation.

Question 52

Describe a difference threshold

Answer 52

The difference threshold is the minimum quantity of stimulus needed for you to distinguish two different stimuli

Question 53

Describe Weber’s Law

Answer 53

Weber’s law says that the amount of stimulus for a difference threshold is a proportion rather than a fixed amount based on the amount of the initial stimulus, an initially large quantity of stimulus will need a larger quantity of stimulus for a difference in perception.

Question 54

What are the four possible outcomes in a trial of a signal detection experiment? How could response bias affect these outcomes?

Answer 54

Create the matrix using the four terms signal/no signal detected/not detected
Response bias could affect these outcomes because each participant has a different absolute threshold, and it can take more or less stimulus for a participant to notice a signal or to miss a signal.

Question 55

What is the difference between a monocular and a binocular depth cue?

Answer 55

The difference between a monocular and binocular depth cue is that a binocular depth cue is available from both eyes and contributes to bottom up processing. A monocular depth cue on the other hand is available from each eye alone (meaning you can still use these cues with one eye closed and provide organizational info for top down processing). Binocular depth cue is when eyes converge inwards, which uses binocular disparity to assess the distance. This is only useful for nearby objects however. Monocular depth, known as pictorial cues.

Question 56

Top down processing

Answer 56

how our brains make use of information that has already been brought into the brain by one or more of the sensory systems. Top-down processing is a cognitive process that initiates with our thoughts, which flow down to lower-level functions, such as the senses

Question 57

Bottom up processing

Answer 57

First comes the response in the body (eyes see the bowl and contents; nose smells chocolate, pickles, and hot sauce; stomach churns; face grimaces; head turns away). This leads to emotion (repulsion, disappointment) and the brain’s cognition and directive for action (thinking, ‘That’s nasty,’ and saying, ‘No thank you.’). As you can see from the chart below, bottom-up processing starts with the body and ends in the brain.

Question 58

Explain how “motion aftereffects” work.

Answer 58

Motion aftereffects occur when your eyes gaze at a moving image for so long that your direction specific neurons are fatigued and less sensitive. As a result, when you remove the stimulus and go back to a still image, the original moving image will move in the opposite direction, as all of your directional specific neurons that are not fatigued all fire at the same time. This proved that there are motion sensitive neurons in the brain.

Question 59

In audition, what characteristics of the sound wave determine intensity and pitch?

Answer 59

The amplitude of the sound wave determines the intensity of the sound. A higher amplitude correlates to a greater intensity. Frequency contributes to the pitch of the sound. A higher frequency will correlate to a higher pitched sound.

Question 60

How are sound waves converted into neural activity in the brain?

Answer 60

Sound waves are converted into neural activity in the brain by first having a sound go through the air and change the air pressure surrounding it. The air enters the outer ear through the auditory canal and vibrates off the eardrum. The eardrum then vibrates to the ossicles, which then sends it to the oval window. The over window contains the cochlea in which the center part is the basilar membrane. The pressure in the cochlea’s fluid causes the basilar membrane to oscillate, which hair cells pick up and send info to the auditory nerve to the thalamus and then to the primary auditory complex in the temporal lobe.

Question 61

Temporal Coding

Answer 61

Used for low-frequency sounds, and involves the hair cells vibrating at the same frequency as the sound.

Question 62

Place coding

Answer 62

Place coding is used for high-frequency sounds, and involves determining pitch of the sound by the location at which the hair cells along the basilar membrane code the sound. Higher frequencies will cause the hair cells to vibrate towards the outer or base part of the basilar membrane, while lower frequencies will cause the hair cells to vibrate towards the inner or tip part of the basilar membrane.

Question 63

Describe the two different types of nerve fibers for pain.

Answer 63

There are two types of nerve fibers for pain: fast fibers for sharp immediate pain and slow fibers for chronic, dull, steady states of pain. An example would be when you touch a hot pan. Fast fibers are activated by the high temperature, while slow fibers are activated by the damage in skin through chemical changes in the skin. Fast pain recoils us from harmful objects while slow pain reminds us to avoid using that area.

Question 64

Explain the gate control theory of pain.

Answer 64

The gate control theory of pain is that we experience pain when pain receptors are active and a neural gate to the spinal cord allows pain to travel up to the brain. Pain signals are transferred using small diameter nerve fibers. These fibers can be blocked at the spinal cord via the firing of larger sensory nerve fibers. This is why scratching an itch is so satisfying and rubbing an area before injections lessens the pain.

Question 65

In vision, what is the process of accommodation?

Answer 65

Accommodation (Acc) is the process by which the vertebrate eye changes optical power to maintain a clear image or focus on an object as its distance varies. …Accommodation acts like a reflex, but can also be consciously controlled.

Question 66

Know the basics of eye anatomy and be able to identify the role each part of the eye plays in vision:sclera, cornea, iris, pupil, lens, retina, rods and cones, bipolar cells, ganglion cells, optic nerve, blindspot, fovea.

Answer 66

cornea - does 66% of light focusing - transparent dome
lens -> focuses the eye so it can focus on objects of various distances so a sharp image can be formed
sclera -> the white part of the eye protects eye from injury
Retina -> detects light sent by lens pupil and cornea to be sent to brain via signals
pupil - allows light into the eye will expand and contract
iris determines eye color does other 33% of focusing
fovea - > where vision is sharpest, located in the retina
retinal sense images upside down
rods/cones forward info to bipolar cells which talk to ganglion cells, the axons of ganglion cells form optic nerve
blindspot is where there are no photoreceptor cells

Question 67

What is a feature detector?

Answer 67

Feature detectors are specialized cells in the brain specifically there to detect certain stimuli of the environment such as movement, shape, or angles.

Question 68

Explain why afterimages occur.

Answer 68

After images occur because under the Opponent Process Theory, cone cells are sensitive to a particular length of wavelength and cannot detect colors of different lengths. Staring at one particular color once you move onto something white will suddenly trigger the opposite color, for your receptors are still used to that one color.

Question 69

How does Locke’s notion of “Tabula Rasa” relate to the behaviorist movement?

Answer 69

Watson who founded Behaviorism believed that newborn humans were capable of learning anything. This was similar to Locke’s notion of “Tabula Rasa” or blank space, and that infants require all of their knowledge through sensory experiences. Watson believed that the environment and its effects on animals were the sole source of learning.

Question 70

How does Locke’s notion of “Tabula Rasa” relate to the behaviorist movement?

Answer 70

Watson who founded Behaviorism believed that newborn humans were capable of learning anything. This was similar to Locke’s notion of “Tabula Rasa” or blank space, and that infants require all of their knowledge through sensory experiences. Watson believed that the environment and its effects on animals were the sole source of learning.

Question 71

Nonassociative learning

Answer 71

a response to something in the environment after repeated exposure

Question 72

Associative learning

Answer 72

linking two events that take place one after another

Question 73

Observational behavior

Answer 73

acquiring or changing behavior after watching another individual conduct the behavior

Question 74

Habituation

Answer 74

decrease in response after repeated exposure to a stimulus - ie living near an airport

Question 75

Sensitization

Answer 75

increase in response after repeated exposure to a stimulus - ie smell something boring

Question 76

Describe second order conditioning and give an example.

Answer 76

Second order conditioning refers to when you pair a second neutral stimulus with the conditioned stimulus and pair the two stimuli until the second neutral stimulus elicits the conditioned response as well. An example would be in Pavlov’s study where after Classical conditioning was utilized to allow the dogs to have the bell become a conditioned stimulus, a black square was also presented with the bell without the presence of meat, and eventually, the black square on its own caused the dog to drool as well.

Question 77

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 77

when a previously extinguished conditioned response emerges after presentation of the conditioned stimulus. It will fade quickly unless the cs is paired again with the us.

Question 78

Stimulus generalization

Answer 78

occurs when stimuli similar but not exact to the unconditional stimuli also elicit the conditioned response

Question 79

What is the “blocking effect”? How is it different from second order conditioning?

Answer 79

amin indicated that having a conditional stimulus that can predict an unconditional stimulus is sufficient. If an animal learns a conditional stimulus is a predictor of an unconditional stimulus, a pigeon learns that a light reliably predicts the onset of some painful stimulus such as a shock, then the pigeon will no longer become conditioned to another conditional stimulus or learn that any other conditional stimulus predicts that unconditional stimulus. So, our little pigeon friend will not learn that a bell predicts the onset of the shock the same way the light did. Once the pigeon learns one reliable association with the CS, it essentially “blocks” further associations.
This is different from second order conditioning because second order conditioning pits a second conditional stimulus to associate and trigger the conditioned response, while Kamin says through the blocking effect that only one conditional stimulus is sufficient if it can help predict an unconditional stimulus.

Question 80

Explain Rescorla’s cognitive perspective on classical conditioning and the Rescorla-Wagner Model.How does counterconditioning work?

Answer 80

Rescorla’s perspective on classical conditioning was that According to the Rescorla-Wagner model, an animal learns an expectation that some predictors (which are potential conditional stimuli) are better than others. The strength of the conditional stimulus to unconditioned stimulus association is determined by the extent to which the unconditional stimulus is unexpected or surprising. The difference between expected and actual outcome is called prediction error. A positive prediction error strengthens the association between the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus when after a stimulus appears, something better than expected happens. For example, an electric can opener is used to open a can of dog food. The dog will associate the sound of the can opener with the appearance of food. That is, the dog will now wag its tail and be happy when it hears that sound as it expects to be fed. When the opener breaks and there’s no longer a sound but the dog still receives food due to a manual can opener, there is a large positive prediction error.

Question 81

Blocking

Answer 81

Blocking is similar to second order conditioning, but involves a different process. In blocking, a previously conditioned stimulus is presented at the same time as the new stimulus, followed by the unconditional stimulus. There will be no conditioned response to the new conditioned stimulus, as the original conditioned stimulus is already reliably predicting the unconditioned stimulus, so the new stimulus is blocked.

Question 82

Describe the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers.

Answer 82

Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that are necessary for survival and satisfy biological needs, such as food or water. Secondary reinforcers are reinforcers that serve as reinforcers but do not satisfy biological needs. These reinforcers are established through classical conditioning, such as money, which is really only paper but is associated with all sorts of unconditional stimuli such as food and power.
Operant conditioning - learning process in which an action’s consequences determine the likelihood of that action being repeated - started with William James working with Thorndike - took inspiration from Darwin

Question 83

Skinner and operant box; what is shaping

Answer 83

Animals might take a while in Skinner’s box, so you can use shaping - which reinforces behaviors that are similar to desired behavior

Question 84

What is the Premack Principle?

Answer 84

The Premack Principle states that a reinforcer’s value could be determined by the amount of time a person, when free, willingly engages in a specific behavior associated with the reinforcer. For instance, more children would rather eat ice cream over vegetables. Reinforcer’s value can also vary with context. If you’re hungry, food will have higher value. According to Premack’s principle, a more-valued activity can be used to reinforce the performance of a less-valued activity. For example, “eat your spinach and you’ll get ice cream.” Finish your homework and you can go outside, etc.

Question 85

Continuous reinforcement

Answer 85

behavior is reinforced every time it occurs, usually used for faster learning

Question 86

intermittent reinforcement

Answer 86

when reinforcement is scattered more randomly. This is known as partial reinforcement

Question 87

Interval Schedule

Answer 87

Based on a set unit of time, reinforced every

Question 88

variable interval

Answer 88

when reinforcement is provided after the passage of time, but the time is not regular - you cannot predict when it will happen. Think pop quizzes

Question 89

Fixed ratio schedule

Answer 89

occurs after a certain number of responses have been made. An example would be factory workers being paid based on how many items they have made in a day

Question 90

Variable ratio schedule

Answer 90

reinforcement is provided after an unpredictable number of responses. Games of chance implement this. Think of a casino.

Question 91

Describe latent learning and the distinction between acquisition and performance.

Answer 91

Latent learning is that takes place without reinforcement. For example, latent learning occurs when a person learns something simply by observing it. When most people drive for the first time, the do not need to be told that rotating the steering wheel turns the car. They already know the steering wheel turns the car. Tolman argued that reinforcement has more impact on performance than on learning.
There is a difference between acquisition and performance of a behavior. Reinforcement has more impact on the performance than on learning and latent learning focuses more on acquisition or actually learning.

Question 92

Describe how Tolman’s studies of rats in mazes helped to clarify this distinction.

Answer 92

Tolman ran his experiment in three groups of rats. One group of rats was put through trials running in a maze with a goal box that never has any food reward as reinforcement. A second group of rats is put through trials in a maze with a goal box that always has food reinforcement. A third group of rats is put through trials in a maze that only has food reinforcement only after the first 10 trials. Rats that were regularly reinforced showed improved performance over time compared with rats that did not receive reinforcement. Rats that were not given anything for the first 10 trials but stuff after learned dramatically after food was given. Rats may learn a path through a maze but not reveal their learning. They do not display the learning because the maze running behavior has not been reinforced - known as latent learning.

Question 93

How do these ideas challenge traditional behaviorist assumptions? (also discussed some in class)

Answer 93

Reinforcement is no longer so much a requirement for behavior to occur, as latent learning can cause learning in the absence of reinforcement. Not all learning behavior is displayed due to latent learning, so not all beliefs can be focused on behavior as behaviorism stated.

Question 94

What role do dopamine and the nucleus accumbens play in learning?

Answer 94

Dopamine release sets the value of a reinforcer in operant conditioning. Drugs that block dopamine’s effects disrupt operant conditioning. This is why drugs that enhance dopamine activation, such as cocaine and amphetamines increase the reward value of stimuli. When hungry rats are given food, they experience an increased dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens, a structure part of the limbic system. The greater the hunger, the greater the dopamine release. More dopamine is released under deprived conditions, which is why food tastes better when you are hungry and water more rewarding when you are thirsty. Certain cues signal rewards, which produce dopamine activity.

Question 95

What is vicarious learning?

Answer 95

Bandura - preschool children into two groups: one watched a film of an adult playing with a doll while the other watched a film of an adult attacking Bobo. When the children were allowed to play with the doll, the group that watched the aggressive adults were more than twice as likely to act aggressively towards the doll.
A factor that determines whether observers imitate a model is whether the model is reinforced for performing the behavior. In another study Bandura showed children a film of adults angrily playing with Bobo, but this time there were 3 endings: for one, a control condition, the adult experienced no consequences for the behavior. In the second version, the adult was rewarded with candy. In the third version, the adult was punished by being spanked and reprimanded. The children who observed the model being rewarded were most likely to be aggressive towards the doll then the children in the control group. Those who saw the model being punished were less likely. Through vicarious learning, people learn about an action’s consequences by watching others being rewarded or punished for the action.

Question 96

Modeling

Answer 96

the imitation of observed behavior; we are more likely to imitate the actions of models who are attractive, have high status, and are somewhat similar to ourselves

Question 97

Describe (in general terms) the behaviorist movement.

Answer 97

The behaviorist movement was a period of thought in psychology which said that learning is from direct experience from one’s environment. Behaviorists only studied observable phenomena which was opposite to other schools of thought such as spiritualists like Freud, and went against spiritualists by focusing on external behavior and stimuli rather than internal behavior.

Question 98

Explain the notion of biological preparedness and give an example.

Answer 98

Biological preparedness is the idea that people and animals are inherently inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses. An example would be the development of taste adversions, or avoidance of eating one thing after you get sick from it. When milk is sour, you know not to drink it as you might get sick from it.

Question 99

Explain the notion of biological preparedness and give an example.

Answer 99

Biological preparedness is the idea that people and animals are inherently inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses. An example would be the development of taste adversions, or avoidance of eating one thing after you get sick from it. When milk is sour, you know not to drink it as you might get sick from it.

Question 100

How is operant conditioning different from classical conditioning?

Answer 100

Classical conditioning is used to produce reflexive, automatic responses, while operant conditioning is for complex, non-reflexive responses.

Question 101

What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect?

Answer 101

Thorndike’s Law of Effect states that rewarded behavior will likely occur again.

Question 102

Successive Approximations

Answer 102

A series of rewards that provide positive steps towards the final outcome

Question 103

What are the problems associated with using punishment to modify behavior?

Answer 103

Some problems include not being as long term. Punishment is ambiguous in that it can’t shape or tell you what to do. It doesn’t stop you from wanting to do it. It instead teaches you and makes you think about how to get away with it in the future.

Question 104

To what does “spread of effects” refer?

Answer 104

The spread of effects refers to punishment: punishing one person for something can lead to the spread of its effects. For example, preventing a child from going to a sleepover with friends by grounding them creates issues, as the child’s friends feel the effects as well even though they didn’t do anything to contribute to what led to the punishment.

Question 105

Where did the behaviorists go wrong? In other words, what weaknesses have now been identified when we evaluate radical behaviorist claims?

Answer 105

Learning isn’t just something that happens to you. Garcia’s effect said that not all stimuli can be paired with any other stimulus. Unfamiliar stimuli might have an advantage over familliar stimuli? Number of trial for conditioning to be successful varies greatly. Cognitive revolution stated not everything can be explained using behaviorism. Take a dog that knows a, b, and c. When given a, b, c, d, and asked to find d, the dog can find d via process of elimination without any reinforcement. (Rico)

Question 106

What is instinctive drift? Give an example.

Answer 106

Instincts can be overcome, but if the reinforcement or punishment stops, then the subject will drift back to its instincts. Pig money

Question 107

What are the three major tasks involved in memory?

Answer 107

The three major tasks involved in memory are encoding where you get info in, storage (consolidation) where you retain the info, and retrieval, which would involve getting the info out.

Question 108

Explain the “modal model” of memory (i.e., the three stage model).

Answer 108

There is sensory memory that is split second and split into echoic and iconic memory, short-term memory (also known as working memory) which has a limited capacity, and 20-30 seconds in duration. There is a limit on short term memory before you either lose it or transfer it into long term memory. There is also long-term memory, where the information is supposed to stick.

Question 109

What are the two major types of sensory memory?

Answer 109

Two major types of sensory memory are echoic and iconic sensory memory. Iconic memory is the visual image people store when they see something briefly. These memories will fade after a while. Echoic memories, which are stored for slightly longer, are memories that people hold when they hear something.

Question 110

What is chunking?

Answer 110

Chunking is putting things together to make words. In a more general sense, it’s grouping bits of information into larger groups in order to make memorization easier and more efficient.

Question 111

What is a mnemonic?

Answer 111

A mnemonic is giving each thing that you want to memorize a code. Ie PEMDAS for order of operations or Hash for 6 of hearts. Essentially, it’s coming up with a coding system in order to aid in better memorizing lists. Attaching meaning to certain words.

Question 112

What is the evidence that LTM and STM are distinct?

Answer 112

LTM and STM are mostly housed in different parts of the brain. LTM is housed more in the hippocampus and the temporal lobe, while short term memory is housed in the frontal cortex, supposedly known as the boss of the brain.

Question 113

Explain the serial position effect, primacy and recency.

Answer 113

The serial position effect appears like a valley between two mountains. At the left is the primacy effect and at the right is the recency effect. The example given in class focused on memorizing a list of words, it was noticed that words that were towards the beginning and towards the end were often memorized. This reasoning is because the recent ones are most likely still in your short term memory, while the first ones made it into longer termed memory. It’s more likely that things in the middle got mixed up.

Question 114

Distinguish between the following types of memory: explicit (episodic and semantic), implicit.

Answer 114

Explicit memory can be split into episodic and semantic. Explicit memory is memory where you know you know it (ideally this is where you want to be on tests). Episodic memory is composed of memory that you know happened to you. For example, it could be that time I fell off the swing when I was 3. Semantic memory is more so composed of general facts, such as the capitals of countries.

Question 115

How can psychologists find evidence for implicit memory?

Answer 115

Implicit memory can compose of classical conditioning where you are operating without awareness, procedural/habits and skills which can be difficult to make explicit by explaining (say walking), savings and relearning, where if you’re taught something again, you learn faster (savings!).

Question 116

Explain the general premise of the “levels of processing” model and what the three levels are.

Answer 116

The premise of the levels of processing predicts that the deeper information is processed, the longer a memory trace will last. The basic idea is that memory is a by product of the depth of processing of information. We can process information in structural processing where we encode only the physical qualities of something (typeface of a word or how the letters look, maybe the font), the phonemic or acoustic processing (which is when we encode its sound), and the semantic processing which happens when we encode the meaning of a word and relate it to similar words with similar meaning. This could be something like picturing a tree at NU’s campus.

Question 117

Transience

Answer 117

when your memory fades over time and/or experiences interference with other stuff. An example would be taking French like Renee did and not remembering as much over time.

Question 118

Ebbinghaus curve

Answer 118

illustrates the decay of memory over a couple of days. Ebbinghaus did this experiment through CVCs, words that were consonant-vowel-consonant that didn’t make sense and tried to teach himself and test himself over time. He realized that when he relearned the new words each day, they tended to stick more in his memory.

Question 119

Absentmindedness

Answer 119

occurs when you weren’t engaged or paying attention. An example would be when you’re providing directions and you get distracted, but you don’t even realize that say a new person showed up. FIND BETTER EXAMPLE In other words, for anything to stick, you have to pay attention to it.

Question 120

Misattributions

Answer 120

occurs when you get content, but you mix up and/or forget where you heard it. A source misattribution occurs when you associate A with B when A really wasn’t from B. Don’t have a source misattribution from content on the Onion with the news.

Question 121

Cryptomnesia

Answer 121

when you think something came from you when in reality it came from someone else. Think of the song Ice Ice Baby and Under Pressure or Sam Smith. In each case, one artist definitely didn’t notice that the idea they thought was theirs’ was actually from someone else, making it really problematic.

Question 122

What’s the difference between anterograde and retrograde amnesia?

Answer 122

Retrograde amnesia is when you lose memories of your past events. If you suffer from trauma from a car accident, you might lose recollection of the events a couple of hours leading up and during the car accident. Anterograde amnesia is when you lost the ability to form new memories. The video of Cline was a demonstration of anterograde amnesia, as Cline’s memory degraded to only lasting up to around 30 seconds, hence why he kept mentioning he just awoke from unconsciousness and feels like he hasn’t seen his wife in a long time. This was a result of damage to his hippocampus as well as frontal lobe damage (which is what caused him to repeat himself a lot).

Question 123

What is an engram?

Answer 123

An engram is the physical site of memory stage, that is where memory lives. The size of the area removed from the rat in Lashley’s experiment was the most important factor in predicting retention. The location was far less important. Memory is distributed throughout the brain as opposed to one area.

Question 124

What is equipotentiality?

Answer 124

Equipotentiality is the idea that memory is distributed throughout the brain rather than confined to any specific location.

Question 125

What is long-term potentiation?

Answer 125

Long term potentiation is the strengthening of a synaptic connection, making the postsynaptic neurons more easily activated by the presynaptic neurons. To simulate this, researchers first establish that stimulating one neuron with a single electrical impulse leads to a certain amount of firing in a second neuron. The researchers then provide intense electrical stimulation to the first neuron. They might give it 100 pulses in one second, then administer a single electrical pulse to the first neuron and measure the second neuron’s fire. If LTP has occurred, the intense electrical stimulation will have the increased likelihood that stimulating the first neuron leads to increased firing in the second neuron. The probability of the postsynaptic neuron firing increases after applying intense and frequent pulses to the presynaptic neuron.

Question 126

Where do memories appear to be stored in the brain?

Answer 126

Memories appear to be stored in the brain in various areas. Different brain regions are responsible for storing different aspects of information. We know from studies of H.M. that regions within the temporal lobes, such as the hippocampus, are important for the ability to store new memories. The temporal lobes are important to say what you remember, but are less important for memory involving motor actions.

Question 127

What areas of the brain appear to be heavily involved in the creation and storage (consolidation) of memories?

Answer 127

The middle section of the temporal lobes, called the medial temporal lobes, is responsible for the formation of new memories. The actual storage occurs in the particular brain regions engaged during the perception, processing, and analysis of the material being learned. Visual information for example is stored in the cortical areas involved in visual perception. Memory for sensory experienced involves reactivating the cortical circuits involved in the initial seeing or hearing. The medial temporal lobes form links between the different storage sites and direct the gradual strengthening of the connections between the links. Once connections are strengthened enough through consolidation, the medial temporal lobes become less important for memory. This is why H.M could not make new memories but could retrieve old ones.

Question 128

What is reconsolidation? Why has it been interesting to researchers?

Answer 128

Reconsolidation is the idea that once memories are activated, they need to be consolidated again to be stored back in memory, where consolidation is the neural process which encoded information becomes stored in memory. Think of reconsolidation as returning a book so someone can check it out later. The “book” or memory is also prone to tearing out pages or adding new pages. In other words, memories change over time.

Question 129

Explain how the idea of working memory is different from the notion of short term memory.

Answer 129

Short term memory receives the stores from sensory memory. Short term memory was thought of initially a buffer or holding place. Instead, it’s an active unit that deals with multiple types of information. A more modern model is working memory, where the storage system actively retains and manipulates multiple pieces of temporary information from multiple sources. Ideas can include sounds, images and ideas. This usually stays for 20-30 seconds before disappearing unless you purposefully prevent it from doing so.

More difficult to remember strings of letters after backward counting, working memory only lasts less than half a minute without continuous rehearsing as a way to remember.

Memories are strengthened with retrieval and practice of retrieval. Those who practiced retrieving the information did best. Practice. Practice. Practice.

Question 130

What is a schema?

Answer 130

Decisions about how to chunk information depend on schemas. These are structures in long-term memory that help us perceive, organize, process, and user information. As we sort out incoming information, schemas guide our attention to an environment’s relevant features. Thanks to schemas, we construct new memories by filling in holes within existing memories, overlooking inconsistent information, and interpreting meaning based on past experiences. The basic idea is that they provide structures for understanding events in the world. A schema for grocery shopping might likely include shopping carts, abundant choices, and set prices. You may expect to choose your own fruit in the produce section. You earned the grocery store schema from experience, which helps you easily predict and navigate the grocery store experience. Culture can heavily influence schemas. For example, in France, you may not be allowed to touch the produce. pg . 280

Question 131

Retrieval cue

Answer 131

anything that helps a person recall information stored in long term memory (think hand sanitizer and Yosemite)

Question 132

Encoding specificity principle

Answer 132

the idea that any stimulus that is encoded along with an experience can later trigger a memory for the experience

Question 133

Describe context-dependent and state-dependent memory and the evidence supporting each.

Answer 133

Context-dependent memory is the kind of memory enhancement when the recall situation is similar to the encoding situation. In one study of encoding, participants studied words in two rooms. The participants were tested for recall in the room in which they studied. When they were tested in the other room, the participants recalled an average of 35 words. When they were tested in the room they studied, they recalled an average of 49 words correctly. Recalling in the same environment or context as encoding will have better memory
State-dependent memory is when internal cues can affect the recovery of information from long-term memory. Think about mood. When you are in a good mood, you tend to recall good times, whereas at the end of a bad day, negative memories tend to surface. Memory can be enhanced by a person’s internal states match during encoding and recall.

Question 134

Proactive interference

Answer 134

old information inhibits the ability to remember new information. If you study for psychology and then swap to anthro, and then take anthro, your performance might be impaired by your knowledge about psychology.

Question 135

Retroactive interference

Answer 135

New information inhibits the ability to remember old information. When it comes to take the psychology test, your performance suffers because you recall the anthro material instead of the psych material.

Question 136

Blocking

Answer 136

a retrieval failure when a person is temporarily unable to remember something.

Question 137

Are flashbulb memories more accurate than other memories? Explain.

Answer 137

Flashbulb memories are vivid episodic memories of important or emotionally arousing events. Flashbulb memories are recalled no more accurately than other episodic memories although people report them with more confidence.