chapter 5 Flashcards
Self-Concept
The overall set of beliefs that people have about
their personal attributes
Rudimentary Self-Concept
found in some primates
and Humans at 18 to 24 months
Child’s self-concept
– Concrete
– References to characteristics like age, sex,
neighborhood, and hobbies
Maturing self-concept
– Less emphasis on physical characteristics
– More emphasis on psychological states and how other
people judge us
The squeaky wheel gets the grease
American proverb
The nail that stands out gets pounded down
Japanese proverb
Independent View of the Self
Defines self through own
internal thoughts, feelings,
and actions and not other
people’s
Interdependent View of the Self
• Defines self through relationships to other people • Recognizes that others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions affect one’s behavior • Connectedness and interdependence valued
Independent View of the Self Held in many Western
cultures
Independence and
uniqueness valued
Interdependent View of the Self Held in many Asian
and non-Western
cultures
Uniqueness frowned
on
Functions of the Self
Four main functions:
- Self-knowledge
- Self Control
- Impression management
- Self-esteem
Self-knowledge
The way we understand who we are and organize this
information
Self Control
The way we make plans and execute decisions
Impression management
The way we present ourselves to others and get them to see
us as we want to be seen
Self-esteem
The way we maintain positive views of ourselves
Introspection
The process whereby people look inward and examine
their own thoughts, feelings, and motives
People do not rely on introspection very often. Why not?
– Not always pleasant to think about ourselves
– Reasons for our feelings and behavior can be outside
conscious awareness
Self-Awareness Theory
The idea that when people focus their attention on
themselves, they evaluate and compare their
behavior to their internal standards and values
Sometimes people go far in their attempt to
escape the self.
Focusing on the self can be very aversive
Ways to turn off “internal spotlight” on oneself
- Alcohol abuse
- Binge eating
- Sexual masochism
- Religious expression
- Spirituality
Self-focus is not always damaging or aversive ex.
if you have experienced a major success or you Can also remind you of your sense of right and wrong
Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do:
Telling More Than We Can Know
It can be difficult to know why we feel the way we
do.
what happens when we predict our reaction
we tend to overestimate how we would feel
Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do:
Telling More Than We Can Know Causal Theories
Theories about the causes of one’s own feelings and
behaviors; often we learn such theories from our
culture.
Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do:
Telling More Than We Can Know Problem
Schemas and theories are not always correct. Can
lead to incorrect judgments about the causes of our
actions.
Reasons-Generated Attitude Change
Attitude change resulting from thinking about the
reasons for one’s attitudes; people assume their
attitudes match the reasons that are plausible and easy
to verbalize
The Consequences of Introspecting
About Reasons
Reasons-Generated Attitude Change
the Problem with Introspecting
About Reasons
– Focus on things that are easy to put into words
– Ignore feelings harder to explain
– Hard-to-explain feelings are the ones that often matter
in the long run
Self-Perception Theory
The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are
uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by
observing our behavior and the situation in which it
occurs
about the Self-Perception Theory
Infer inner feelings from behavior
People judge whether their behavior
Infer inner feelings from behavior
Only when not sure how we feel
People judge whether their behavior
– Really reflects how we feel
– Or the situation that made us act that way
Intrinsic Motivation
Engage in an activity because of enjoyment and
interest, not external rewards or pressures
Extrinsic Motivation
Engage in an activity because of external reasons, not
because of enjoyment and interest
Danger of reward programs
Reading for rewards, not because it’s actually
enjoyable can make people not enjoy reading
Overjustification Effect
The tendency of people to view their behavior as
caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them
underestimate the extent to which it was caused by
intrinsic reasons
Task-contingent rewards
Rewards that are given for performing a task,
regardless of how well the task is done
Performance-contingent rewards
Rewards that are based on how well we perform a task
Avoiding over-justification when using rewards
- Rewards will undermine interest only if interest was
initially high. - The type of reward makes a difference. Performance-contingent rewards are less damaging to intrinsic
interest
Fixed mindset
The idea that we have a set amount of an ability that
cannot change
Growth mindset
The idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that
we can cultivate and grow
how Mindset affects motivation
Fixed mindset more likely to give up and do poorly on
subsequent tasks after failure
Stanley Schachter (1964)
– Experience of emotion is similar to other types of selfperception
– Infer our emotions by observing our behavior
Schachter’s theory
We experience emotions in a two-step self-perception
process
two-step self-perception
process:
- Experience physiological arousal.
2. Seek an appropriate explanation for it.
Implications of the Two-Factor
Theory of Emotion
– Emotions are somewhat arbitrary.
– Emotions depend on our explanations for arousal
Misattribution of Arousal
Making mistaken inferences about what is
causing them to feel the way they do
• Arousal from one source (e.g., caffeine, exercise,
a fright) can enhance the intensity of how the
person interprets other feelings (e.g., attraction to
someone).
Self-concept shaped by
people around us
How do we use others to define ourselves?
Measure our own abilities and attitudes by comparing
to other people
Social Comparison Theory
The idea that we learn about our own abilities and
attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people
Social Comparison Theory revolves around two important
questions:
– When do you engage in social comparison?
– With whom do you choose to compare yourself?
When do you engage in social comparison?
– No objective standard exists to measure against
– When we experience uncertainty
– Example: New office donation program, not sure what
amount would be generous, you are especially likely to
compare yourself to others.
With whom do you choose to compare yourself?
Initial impulse: anyone who is around
Occurs quickly and automatically
Goals of Knowing Ourselves by Comparing
Ourselves to Others
- know the furthest level to which we can
aspire - feel better about yourself
Upward social comparison
Comparing to people who are better on a particular ability
Downward social comparison
Comparing to people who are worse on a particular trait or
ability
We adopt other people’s views in some
circumstances
“Looking glass self” (Cooley, 1902)
We see ourselves and the social world through the eyes of
other people
Social Tuning
The process whereby people adopt another person’s
attitudes
Affective Forecasts
People’s predictions about how they will feel in
response to a future emotional event
Self-Control
Making choices about present and plans for the future
Thought suppression
Attempt to avoid thinking about something we would
prefer to forget and is Not that efficient
Exerting effort on one task
limits ability to exert
self-control on another task
Ingratiation
Flattering, praising, and generally trying to make
ourselves likable to another person, often of higher
status
Self-handicapping
Creating obstacles and excuses for ourselves
Behavioral self-handicapping
People act in ways that reduce the likelihood of success so
that if they fail, they can blame it on obstacles rather than
ability
Reported self-handicapping
Rather than creating obstacles to success, people devise
ready-made excuses in case they fail
Desire to manage image we present
is Culturally universal
Kinds of images we want to present
is Cultural different
Self-Esteem
Overall evaluation (positive or negative) that people have of themselves
Benefits of high self-esteem:
Buffers against thoughts of own mortality
Motivates us to persevere when going gets rough
Narcissism
Combination of excessive self-love and a lack of
empathy toward others and Has increased in college students since the 1980s
Sources of Self-Knowledge
– Introspection
– Self-Perception
– Social Interaction
Self-Presentation
how we present ourselves
