Chapter 5 Flashcards
Although conventional X-ray photography is not useful
for visualizing the brain, contrast X-ray techniques are.
____ ____ _____ involve injecting into one compartment of the body a substance that absorbs X-rays either
less than or more than the surrounding tissue. The injected
substance then heightens the contrast between the compartment and the surrounding tissue during X-ray photography.
Contrast X-ray techniques
One contrast X-ray technique, ____ _____,
uses the infusion of a radio-opaque dye into a cerebral
artery to visualize the cerebral circulatory system during
X-ray photography (see Figure 5.1).
____ _____ are most useful for
localizing vascular damage, but the displacement of
blood vessels from their normal
position also can indicate the location of a tumor.
cerebral angiography, Cerebral angiograms
In the early 1970s, the study of the living human brain was revolutionized by the introduction of computed tomography. \_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_ is a computer assisted X-ray procedure that can be used to visualize the brain and other internal structures of the living body.
Computed
tomography (CT)
The success of computed tomography stimulated the development of other techniques for obtaining images of the
inside of the living body. Among these techniques is
____ _____ _____ a procedure in
which high-resolution images are constructed from the
measurement of waves that hydrogen atoms emit when
they are activated by radio-frequency waves in a magnetic
field.
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
In addition to providing relatively high ___ ____ (the ability to detect and represent differences in
spatial location), MRI can produce images in three dimensions.
spatial resolution
____ ____ ____ was the first brain imaging technique to provide images of brain activity
(functional brain images) rather than images of brain structure (structural brain images).
Positron emission tomography (PET)
In one common version of
PET, radioactive _______ is injected into the
patient s carotid artery (an artery of the neck that feeds
the ipsilateral cerebral hemisphere). Because of its similarity to glucose, the primary metabolic fuel of the brain,
_____ is rapidly taken up by active (energyconsuming) cells. However, unlike glucose, ______
cannot be metabolized; it therefore accumulates in active
neurons or in associated astrocytes
2-deoxyglucose (2-DG)
____ _____ produce images representing
the increase in oxygen flow in the blood to active areas of
the brain. ____ _____ is possible because of two attributes of oxygenated blood (see Raichle & Mintun,
2006). First, active areas of the brain take up more oxygenated blood than they need for their energy requirements, and thus oxygenated blood accumulates in active
areas of the brain. Second, oxygenated blood has magnetic properties (oxygen influences the effect of magnetic
fields on iron in the blood).
Functional MRI (fMRI)
The signal recorded by
fMRI is called the ____ _____ (the blood-oxygen-level dependent signal).
BOLD signal
Another technique that is used to monitor the brain activity of human subjects is magnetoencephalography
(MEG). MEG measures changes in magnetic fields on the
surface of the scalp that are produced by changes in underlying patterns of neural activity. Its major advantage
over fMRI is its ____ ______; it can record fast
changes in neural activity.
temporal resolution
_____ _____ ______ is a technique for affecting the activity in an area of the cortex by
creating a magnetic field under a coil positioned next to
the skull
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
The electroencephalogram (EEG) is a measure of the gross
electrical activity of the brain. It is recorded through
large electrodes by a device called an electroencephalograph
(EEG machine), and the technique is called ______.
electroencephalography
For example, ____ _____ are regular, 8- to 12-per-second, high-amplitude waves that are associated with relaxed
wakefulness.
alpha waves
Psychophysiologists are often more interested in the
EEG waves that accompany certain psychological events
than they are in the background EEG signal. These accompanying EEG waves are generally referred to as ___ _____ _____.
event related potentials (ERPs)
One commonly studied type
of event-related potential is the ____ _____
potential the change in the cortical EEG signal that is
elicited by the momentary presentation of a sensory stimulus.
sensory evoked
A method used to reduce the noise of the background EEG is \_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_. First, a subject s response to a stimulus, such as a click, is recorded many let s say 1,000 times.
signal averaging
The analysis of average evoked potentials (AEPs) focuses on the various waves in the averaged signal. Each
wave is characterized by its direction, positive or negative, and by its latency. For example, the ____ ____ illustrated in Figure 5.10 is the positive wave that occurs
about 300 milliseconds after a momentary stimulus that
has meaning for the subject (e.g., a stimulus to which
the subject must respond)
P300 wave
In contrast, the portions of an evoked
potential recorded in the first few milliseconds after a
stimulus are not influenced by the meaning of the stimulus for the subject. These small waves are called _____ _____ because, although they are recorded
from the scalp, they originate far away in the sensory nuclei of the brain stem.
farfield potentials
_______ is the usual procedure for measuring muscle tension. The resulting record is called an
______ (EMG). EMG activity is usually recorded
between two electrodes taped to the surface of the skin
over the muscle of interest.
Electromyographym, electromyogram
The electrophysiological technique for recording eye movements is called ______, and the resulting record
is called an ______
electrooculography, electrooculogram (EOG).
Emotional thoughts and experiences are associated with increases in the ability of the skin to conduct electricity. The
two most commonly employed indexes of electrodermal activity are the ___ ____ ____ (SCL) and the ___ ____ ____ (SCR). The SCL is a measure of the
background level of skin conductance that is associated
with a particular situation, whereas the SCR is a measure of
the transient changes in skin conductance that are associated with discrete experiences.
skin conductance level
skin
conductance response
The electrical signal that is associated
with each heartbeat can be recorded through electrodes
placed on the chest. The recording is called an ______ (abbreviated either ECG, for obvious reasons, or EKG, from the original German).
electrocardiogram
A chronic blood pressure of more than
140/90 mmHg is viewed as a serious health hazard and is
called _______.
hypertension
_________
refers to the various techniques for measuring changes in
the volume of blood in a particular part of the body
Plethysmography
The ____ _____ is used to locate brain structures
in much the same way that a geographic atlas is used to
locate geographic landmarks. There is, however, one important difference. In contrast to the surface of the earth,
which has only two dimensions, the brain has three.
stereotaxic atlas
Accordingly, the brain is represented in a stereotaxic atlas
by a series of individual maps, one per page, each representing the structure of a single, two-dimensional frontal
brain slice. In stereotaxic atlases, all distances are given in
millimeters from a designated reference point. In some
rat atlases, the reference point is _____ the point on
the top of the skull where two of the major sutures (seams
in the skull) intersect.
bregma
The ____ ______ has two parts: a head
holder, which firmly holds each subject s brain in the
prescribed position and orientation; and an electrode
holder, which holds the device to be inserted. A system
of precision gears allows the electrode
holder to be moved in three dimensions: anterior posterior, dorsal ventral,
and lateral medial.
stereotaxic instrument
When a lesion
is to be made in an area of cortical tissue that is accessible to the eyes and instruments of the surgeon, ______ is
frequently the method of choice.
aspiration
An alternative to destructive
lesions is ____ _____. When coolant is pumped
through an implanted cryoprobe, such as the one depicted
in Figure 5.16, neurons near the tip are cooled until they
stop firing. The temperature is maintained above the
freezing level, so there is no structural damage. Then,
when the tissue is allowed to warm up, normal neural
activity returns
cryogenic blockade
In most psychopharmacological experiments, drugs are
administered in one of the following ways:
(1) They are
fed to the subject; (2) they are injected through a tube into the stomach (intragastrically); or (3) they are injected
hypodermically into the peritoneal cavity of the abdomen
(intraperitoneally, IP), into a large muscle (intramuscularly,
IM), into the fatty tissue beneath the skin (subcutaneously,
SC), or into a large surface vein (intravenously, IV).
A problem with these peripheral routes of administration is that
many drugs do not readily pass through the blood brain
barrier. To overcome this problem, drugs can be administered in small amounts through a fine, hollow tube,
called a ______, that has been stereotaxically implanted
in the brain.
cannula
The effects of surgical, electrolytic, and cryogenic lesions are frequently difficult to interpret because they
affect all neurons in the target area. In some cases, it is
possible to make more selective lesions by injecting
_______ (neural poisons) that have an affinity for
certain components of the nervous system.
neurotoxins
The 2-deoxyglucose
(2-DG) technique entails placing an animal that has been
injected with radioactive 2-DG in a test situation in which
it engages in the activity of interest. Because 2-DG is similar in structure to glucose the brain s main source of
energy neurons active during the test absorb it at a high
rate but do not metabolize it. Then the subject is killed,
and its brain is removed and sliced. The slices are then
subjected to ______; they are coated with a
photographic emulsion, stored in the dark for a few days,
and then developed much like film.
autoradiography
____ _____ is a method of
measuring the extracellular concentration of specific neurochemicals in behaving animals (see Robinson & Justice,
1991) most other techniques for measuring neurochemicals require that the animals be killed so that tissue can be
extracted.
Cerebral dialysis
_________ is a procedure
for locating particular neuroproteins in the brain by labeling their antibodies with a dye or radioactive element and
then exposing slices of brain tissue to the labeled antibodies.
Regions of dye or radioactivity accumulation in the brain
slices mark the locations of the target neuroprotein.
Immunocytochemistry
Another technique for locating peptides and other proteins in the brain is \_\_ \_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_. This technique takes advantage of the fact that all peptides and proteins are transcribed from sequences of nucleotide bases on strands of messenger RNA
in situ
hybridization
___ knockout techniques are procedures for creating
organisms that lack a particular gene under investigation
(see Eisener-Dorman, Lawrence, & Bolivar, 2008). Mice
(the favored mammalian subjects of genetic research)
that are the products of ____ knockout techniques are referred to as knockout mice.
Gene
It is now possible to replace one gene with another. ___ ____ ____ have created interesting possibilities for research and therapy. Pathological genes from
human cells can be inserted in other animals such as
mice mice that contain the genetic material of another
species are called ____ ____.
Gene
replacement techniques
transgenic mice
____ ____ ____ is a protein that exhibits
bright green fluorescence when exposed to blue light.
First isolated by Shimomura, Johnson, and
Saiga (1962), from a species of jellyfish
found off the west coast of North America,
GFP is currently stimulating advances in many fields of
biological research.
Green fluorescent protein (GFP)
Livet and colleagues took the very useful GFP technique one step further one big step. First, Tsien (1998)
found that making minor alterations to the GFP gene
resulted in the synthesis of proteins that fluoresced in
different colors. Livet and colleagues (2007) then introduced the mutated genes for cyan, yellow, and blue
fluorescent proteins into the genomes of developing
mice in such a way that they were expressed in developing neurons. Each neuron produced different amounts of
the three proteins, giving it a distinctive color in the
same way that a color printer can
make any color by mixing only three
colored inks in differing proportions. Because each neuron was labeled with its own
distinctive color, the pathways of neural axons could
be traced to their destinations through the cellular
morass. This technique has been dubbed ______ for
obvious reasons
brainbow
A single set of procedures developed for the investigation of a particular behavioral phenomenon is commonly
referred to as a behavioral paradigm. Each ____ _____ normally comprises a method for producing
the behavioral phenomenon under investigation and a
method for objectively measuring it.
behavioral
paradigm
Many neuropsychological assessments begin with the
___ ____ ____ ____, first published
in 1955 and standardized in
1981 on a sample of 1,880
U.S. citizens between 16 and
71. The WAIS is often the first test because knowing a patient s IQ can help a neuropsychologist interpret the results of subsequent tests.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale (WAIS)
One weakness of the WAIS is that it often fails
to detect memory deficits, despite including subtests
specifically designed to test memory function. For example, the information subtest of the WAIS assesses memory
for general knowledge (e.g., Who is Queen Elizabeth? ),
and the ____ ____ subtest (the most widely used test of
short-term memory) identifies the longest sequence of
random digits that a patient can repeat correctly 50% of
the time; most people have a
____ ____ of 7.
digit span
If a neuropsychological patient has taken
the WAIS, deficits in the use of language can be inferred
from a low aggregate score on the verbal subtests. A patient who has not taken the WAIS can be quickly screened
for language-related deficits with the _____ test.
token
The ____ ____ test involves injecting the anesthetic ____ _____ into either the left or right carotid
artery in the neck. This temporarily anesthetizes the
ipsilateral (same-side) hemisphere while leaving the
contralateral (opposite-side) hemisphere largely unaffected.
sodium amytal
In the standard version of the ____ ____ ____, sequences of spoken digits are presented to subjects through
stereo headphones. Three digits are presented to one ear at
the same time that three different digits are presented to
the other ear. Then the subjects are asked to report as many
of the six digits as they can.
dichotic listening test
Many amnesic patients display severe deficits in explicit memory with no deficits at all in implicit memory
(Curran & Schacter, 1997). ____ _____ tests have
proven instrumental in the assessment and study of this
pattern. Patients are first shown a list of words and asked
to study them; they are not asked to remember them.
Then, at a later time, they are asked to complete a list of
word fragments, many of which are fragments of words
from the initial list. For example, if purple had been in
the initial test, pu_p_ _ could be one of the test word
fragments.
Repetition priming
Injuries to the frontal lobes are common, and the
__ ___ ___ ___ (see Figure 5.23) is a component of many customized test batteries because performance on it is sensitive to frontal-lobe damage (see
Eling, Derckx, & Maes, 2008). On each Wisconsin card is
either one symbol or two, three, or four identical symbols.
The symbols are all either triangles, stars, circles, or
crosses; and they are all either red, green, yellow, or blue.
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test
____ _____ is predicated on two related assumptions. The first premise is that each complex cognitive
process results from the combined activity of simple cognitive processes called constituent cognitive processes. The
second premise is that each constituent cognitive process is
mediated by neural activity in a particular area of the brain.
One of the main goals of ____ _____ is to identify the parts of the brain that mediate various constituent
cognitive processes.
Cognitive neuroscience
With the central role played by PET and fMRI in cutting edge cognitive neuroscience research, the ____-___ _____ technique has become one of the key behavioral research methods in such research
paired-image
subtraction
Interpretation of difference images is
complicated by the fact that there is substantial brain activity when human subjects sit quietly and let their minds
wander this level of activity has been
termed the brain s ____ ____
default mode
The brain structures that are typically active in the default mode are collectively referred to as the default mode _____
network
___-____ _____ are
those that are displayed by virtually all members of a
species, or at least by all those of the same age and sex.
Species-common behaviors
In the ____-____ ____, the subject is
placed in a large, barren chamber, and its activity is recorded
(see Brooks & Dunnett, 2009). It is usual to measure general
activity either with an automated activity recorder or by
drawing lines on the floor of the chamber and counting the
number of line-crossings during the test.
open-field test
Low activity scores and high bolus counts are frequently used as indicators of fearfulness. Fearful rats are
highly ______; that is, they rarely venture away from
the walls of the test chamber and rarely engage in such activities as rearing and grooming.
thigmotaxic
Typical
patterns of aggressive and defensive behavior can be observed and measured during combative encounters between
the dominant male rat of an established colony and a
smaller male intruder (see Blanchard & Blanchard, 1988).
This is called the ____-____ ______. The behaviors
of the dominant male are considered to be aggressive and
those of the hapless intruder defensive. The dominant male
of the colony (the alpha male) moves sideways toward the
intruder, with its hair erect. When it nears the intruder, it
tries to push the intruder off balance and to deliver bites to
its back and flanks.
colony-intruder paradigm
The ____ ____ maze, a four-armed, plus-sign-shaped
maze that is typically mounted 50 centimeters above the
floor, is a test of defensiveness that is commonly used to
study in rats the anxiolytic (anxiety-reducing) effects of
drugs.
elevated plus
If the female is
receptive, she responds by assuming the posture called
_____; that is, she sticks her hindquarters in the air, she
bends her back in a U, and she deflects her tail to the side.
lordosis
During some mounts, the male inserts his penis into the
female s vagina; this act is called ______. After _____, the male dismounts by jumping backwards.
intromission
Following about 10 such cycles of mounting, intromitting, and dismounting, the male mounts,
intromits, and _____
ejaculates
Three common measures of male rat sexual behavior
are the number of mounts required to achieve intromission, the number of intromissions required to achieve
ejaculation, and the interval between ejaculation and the
reinitiation of mounting. The most common measure of
female rat sexual behavior is the _____ _____
lordosis quotient
If you have taken a previous course in psychology, you
will likely be familiar with the Pavlovian and operant conditioning paradigms. In the ___ ____ _____, the experimenter pairs an initially neutral stimulus
called a conditional stimulus (e.g., a tone or a light) with
an unconditional stimulus (e.g., meat powder) a stimulus that elicits an unconditional (reflexive) response (e.g.,
salivation).
Pavlovian conditioning paradigm
In the ____ ____ _____, the rate at
which a particular voluntary response (such as a lever
press) is emitted is increased by reinforcement or decreased by punishment.
operant conditioning paradigm
In the ____-_____
paradigm, animals press a lever to deliver electrical
stimulation to particular sites in their own brains;
self-stimulation
A ____ ____ ____ is the avoidance response that develops to tastes
of food whose consumption has been followed by illness
conditioned taste
aversion
Designed by Olton and Samuelson
(1976) to study these spatial abilities, the ___ ____ maze
(see Figure 5.26) is an array of arms usually eight or
more radiating from a central starting area. At the end of
each arm is a food cup, which may or may not be baited, depending on the purpose of the experiment.
In one version of the radial arm maze para
radial arm
Another seminatural learning paradigm that has been designed to study the spatial abilities
of rats is the ___ ____ _____. The rats
are placed in a circular, featureless pool of cool milky water,
in which they must swim until they discover the escape
platform which is invisible just beneath the surface of the
water.
Morris water maze (Morris, 1981)
In studies of
____ _____ _____, rats receive a single
aversive stimulus (e.g., a shock, air blast, or noxious
odor) from an object mounted on the wall of the chamber just above the floor, which is littered with bedding
material. After a single trial, almost every rat learns that
the test object is a threat and responds by flinging bedding material at the test object with its head and forepaws
conditioned defensive burying
