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Chapter 4 > Chapter 4 Study Questions > Flashcards

Chapter 4 Study Questions Flashcards

1
Q

The study of cells

A

Cytology

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2
Q

What are the types of microscopic images

A
  1. The light microscope (LM):
    two-dimensional image
    Passes light through a specimen
    Uses color-dye stains

2.The electron microscope (EM:)
beam of electrons to “illuminate”
greater magnification than a light microscope
greater ability to see details (resolution)

  1. Transmission electron microscope (TEM):
    Directs electron beam through sections
    Produces two-dimensional images

4.Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
Directs an electron beam across the surface
Generates a three-dimensional study

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3
Q

Types of microscopic images that are TWO dimensional

A
  1. Light Microscope

2. Transmission electron microscope

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4
Q

Types of microscopic images that are THREE dimensional

A

Scanning electron microscope

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5
Q

Types of microscopic images that use dyes to visualize structures

A

Light Microscope

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6
Q

What are 3 main components of a cell

A

Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)
Cytoplasm
Nucleus

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7
Q

The part of the cell that controls material movement in and out

A

Plasma membrane: Cell membrane

Regulates the movements of most substances in and out of the cell

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8
Q

What material is contained within the nucleus

A

Genetic material

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9
Q

What is the largest structure in the cell

A

Nucleus

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10
Q

What is the part of the cell between the cell membrane and nucleus

A

Cytoplasm

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11
Q

Fluid between the cell

A

Cytosol: (intracellular fluid)

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12
Q

Fluid within the cells

A

Intracellular- within cell (cytosol)

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13
Q

Fluid between the cells

A

Interstitial: extracellular fluid between cells

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14
Q

Fluid outside the cells

A

Extracellular- outside cells

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15
Q

What type of fluid is blood

A

Extracellular fluids

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16
Q

What are the components of the cytoplasm

A

Cytoplasm:

Located: between plasma membrane and the nucleus

Components Includes: cytosol, organelles, and inclusions

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17
Q

What are the components of the cytoplasm

A

Cytoplasm:

Located: between plasma membrane and the nucleus

Components Includes: cytosol, organelles, and inclusions

Next question explains each component down below!

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18
Q

Cytostol

A

(intracellular fluid)
Viscous fluid of the cytoplasm
High water content
Contains dissolved molecules and elements

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19
Q

Organelles

A 
Organized structures within cells
Unique shape and function
Membrane-bound organelles
enclosed by a membrane
Non-membrane-bound organelles
not enclosed within a membrane
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20
Q

Inclusions

A 
Large diverse group of molecules
not bound by membrane
Storage molecules
Generally not permanent 
pigments, glycogen, triglycerides
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21
Q

What are TWO major types of organelles

A

Membrane-bound organelles
enclosed by a membrane

Non-membrane-bound organelles
not enclosed within a membrane

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22
Q

What distinguishes the TWO major types of organelles

A

Organized structures within cells

Unique shape and function

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23
Q

What are the functions of cells

A 
Maintain integrity and shape of cell
Obtain nutrients
Metabolism
Dispose of wastes
Cell division
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24
Q

What are the functions of cells

Describe each

A 
Maintain integrity and shape of cell
Obtain nutrients
Metabolism
Dispose of wastes
Cell division
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25
Q

What are the components of the cell membrane

A

Lipids and Proteins

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26
Q

What are the functions of the cell membrane

A

Functions of the Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane)

  1. Communication
  2. Intercellular connection
  3. Physical barrier
  4. Selective permeability
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27
Q

Three lipids in the cell membrane

A
  1. Phospholipids
  2. Cholesterol
  3. Glycolipids
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28
Q

What lipid makes up most of the lipids in the cell

A

Phospholipid

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29
Q

Cell membrane (plasma membrane)

A
  1. Regulates the movements of most substances in and out of the cell
  2. Made of lipids and proteins
  3. Small and nonpolar substances able to penetrate without assistance through the lipids
  4. Larger and polar substances require specific protein passageways
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30
Q
  1. Regulates the movements of most substances in and out of the cell
  2. Made of lipids and proteins
  3. Small and nonpolar substances able to penetrate without assistance through the lipids
  4. Larger and polar substances require specific protein passageways
A

Cell membrane (plasma membrane)

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31
Q

What are the 3 components of a phospholipid

A

Glycerol, 2 fatty acids, phosphate group

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32
Q

What are the number of layers of phospholipids in the cell membrane

A

phospholipid bilayer ( Meaning There are 2 layers)

polar regions (head) face outside and inside of the cell

nonpolar regions (tails) face each other (form internal core of the membrane)

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33
Q

Part of the phospholipids that are FACING each other

A

Nonpolar regions (Tails)

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34
Q

Part of the phospholipids that are attracted to water

A

Head! Polar (Charged) Hydrophilic

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35
Q

Part of the phospholipids that are repelled from water

A

Tail! Non polar(Uncharged) Hydrophobic

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36
Q

What is the term meaning being attracted to water

A

Hydrophilic (polar) - Charged

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37
Q

What lipid of the cell membrane helps keep it together

A

Cholesterol

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38
Q

Membrane lipid with extensions that project toward the extracellular surface

A

Glycolipids

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39
Q

what are the TWO types of proteins in the cell membrane

A

integral, peripheral

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40
Q

The proteins in the cell membrane are distinguished by what?

A

one goes all the way through cell membrane and the other sits on the inside or outside of the cell membrane

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41
Q

The glycolipids and and glycoprotein are called what?

A

glycocalyx

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42
Q

A function of the glycocalyx is what?

A

recognition

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43
Q

Membrane protein that expands the whole membrane

A

Integral
also called
Transmembrane protein

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44
Q

what happens to a red blood cell if it’s put into a hypotonic solution?

A

It will Lyse (Burst)

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45
Q

What are the functions of cell membrane proteins

A

Transport: proteins provide a means of regulating the movement of substances across the plasma membrane. Different types of transport proteins include channels, carriers, pumps, symporters, and antiporters

Cell surface receptors: bind specific molecules called ligands. Ligands are molecules that bind to macromolecules (e.g., binding to a receptor).

An example of a ligand is a neurotransmitter released from a nerve cell that binds to the cell surface receptor of a muscle cell to initiate contraction.

Identity markers: communicate to other cells that they belong to the body. Cells of the immune system use identity markers to distinguish normal, healthy cells from foreign, damaged, or infected cells that are to be destroyed.

Enzymes :may be attached to either the internal or the external surface of a cell for catalyzing chemical reactions.

Anchoring sites: secure the cytoskeleton (the internal, protein support of a cell) to the plasma membrane.

Cell-adhesion: proteins are for cell-to-cell attachments. Proteins that form membrane junctions perform a number of functions, including binding cells to one another.

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46
Q

What are TWO types of membrane transport

A

Active Transport and Passive Transport

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47
Q

What distinguishes the two types of membrane transport

A 
Active Transport (requires ATP) 
Active transport (requires ATP since it is moving Against (up) concentration gradient
A molecule moves from a lower concentration of the molecule to a higher concentration of the molecule
Passive transport (Does Not require ATP)
Passive transport (does not require) energy, since it is moving (down) the concentration gradient
A molecule moves from a Higher concentration of the molecule to a lower concentration of a molecule
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48
Q

What is the end result of diffusion

A

Diffusion is the result of a concentration gradient. When there is a higher concentration of a substance on one side of a barrier than on the other side, the molecules move across the barrier to try and establish equilibrium. This process is diffusion. Diffusion of water is specifically called osmosis. While diffusion occurs in living things, equilibrium is never reached. In an organism, equilibrium is the result of death.

Diffusion will occur until two areas have reached equal concentrations

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49
Q

________ transport REQUIRES ATP. _________ transport DOES NOT REQUIRE ATP

A

Active, Passive

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50
Q

Transport Proteins

A

Channels, Carriers, Pumps for ions to cross membrane.

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51
Q

Cell Surface Receptors

A

Bind ligands (first messengers).

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52
Q

Molecules released from one cell that bind to receptors(!) within the plasma membrane of another cell. Neurotransmitters and hormones.

A

Ligands

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53
Q

Proteins or glycoproteins that communicate to other cells that they belong to the body. Used to distinguish healthy cells from foreign or damaged cells that need to be destroyed.

A

Identity Markers

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54
Q

Attach to internal or external surface of the cell for catalyzing chemical reactions.

A

Enzymes

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55
Q

Proteins that secure the cytoskeletons to plasma membranes.

A

Anchoring sites

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56
Q

Cell-cell attachments

A

cell-adhesion attachments

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57
Q

Cell-cell attachments

A

cell-adhesion proteins

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58
Q

Why must energy be used in active transport

A

Active transport mechanisms require the use of the cell’s energy, usually in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). If a substance must move into the cell against its concentration gradient, that is, if the concentration of the substance inside the cell must be greater than its concentration in the extracellular fluid, the cell must use energy to MOVE the substance. Some active transport mechanisms move small-molecular weight material, such as ions, through the membrane.

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59
Q

What are factors influencing diffusion rate and explain how each one influences diffusion rate

A

***“Environmental conditions “ affecting rate of diffusion

“Steepness” of concentration gradient

measure of the difference in concentration between two areas

steeper gradient with a faster rate of diffusion

***“Temperature” Affecting rate of diffusion

reflects random movement

higher movement with higher temperature

results in faster rate of diffusion

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60
Q

Factors affecting rate of diffusion (ALSO)

A

Factors that affect the rate of diffusion –

Size of molecule – the smaller the molecules, the faster the rate of diffusion. Relationship is inversely proportional.
Temperature – higher temperature meant more kinetic energy, so faster rate of diffusion. Relationship is directly proportional.

Concentration gradient – the greater the difference in concentration of molecules, the faster the rate. Relationship is directly proportional.

Distance – the shorter the distance that the molecules will have to travel, the faster the rate of diffusion. Relationship is inversely proportional.

Surface area – the greater the surface area of the cell, the faster the rate. Relationship is directly proportional.

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61
Q

Differences between active and passive transport

A

Passive transport moves substances down a concentration gradient with no energy use by the cell.

Active transport requires energy use by the cell to move substances against the concentration gradient

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62
Q

Identify how ATP is involved in maintaining the sodium and potassium gradients across a cell membrane.

A

ATP provides the energy that drives the sodium-potassium pump, which pumps NA+ out of the cell and K+ into the cell

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63
Q

When sodium moves by passive transport, explain the determining factor in which direction it will go

A

Passive transport means it does not require energy. Therefore, substances move from areas of high concentration to low concentration. They do not require energy because they are staying within the concentration gradient.

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64
Q

During diffusion, molecules tend to move in what direction?

How would sodium move in this case?

A

From an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

Sodium would move…Passive transport means it does not require energy. Therefore, substances move from areas of high concentration to low concentration. They do not require energy because they are staying within the concentration gradient.

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65
Q

What are the types of passive transport?

For each one listed we know they move from a

A

Diffusion (including Simple Diffusion)

Facilitated Diffusion

Osmosis

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66
Q

What are the types of passive transport?

For each one listed we know they move from a Higher concentration to a Lower concentration

A

Diffusion (including Simple Diffusion)

Facilitated Diffusion

Osmosis

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67
Q

Molecules that move via simple diffusion

A

The structure of the lipid bilayer allows small, uncharged substances such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, and hydrophobic molecules such as lipids, to pass through the cell membrane, down their concentration gradient, by simple diffusion.

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68
Q

Sodium

A

sodium ions (Na+) are highly concentrated outside of cells, these electrolytes are charged and cannot pass through the nonpolar lipid bilayer of the membrane. Their diffusion is facilitated by membrane proteins that form sodium channels (or “pores”), so that Na+ ions can move down their concentration gradient from outside the cells to inside the cells.

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69
Q

Why must molecules use facilitated diffusion VS. simple diffusion

A

Simple Diffusion:

The structure of the lipid bilayer allows small, uncharged substances such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, and hydrophobic molecules such as lipids, to pass through the cell membrane, down their concentration gradient, by simple diffusion.
Versus:

Facilitated Diffusion

is the diffusion process used for those substances that cannot cross the lipid bilayer due to their size, charge, and/or polarity but do so down their concentration gradients

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70
Q

Simple Diffusion Versus Facilitated diffusion

A

Simple Diffusion= No transport protein required

Facilitated Diffusion=Transport protein required

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71
Q

When sodium moves by active transport, explain the determining factor in which direction it will go

A

Low Concentration to High concentration

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72
Q

Molecules that move via simple diffusion

A

The structure of the lipid bilayer allows small, uncharged substances such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, and hydrophobic molecules such as lipids, to pass through the cell membrane, down their concentration gradient, by simple diffusion.

respiratory gases (O2 and CO2),
small fatty acids,
ethanol, and urea (a nitrogenous waste produced from amino acids).

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73
Q

Molecules that move via simple diffusion

A

respiratory gases (O2 and CO2),
small fatty acids,
ethanol, and urea (a nitrogenous waste produced from amino acids).

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74
Q

Types of facilitated diffusion

A

Channel-mediated diffusion: Ions (e.g., Na+, K+) move through specific water-filled protein channels.

Carrier-mediated diffusion: Small, polar molecules (e.g., glucose) are transported by protein carriers.

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75
Q

Molecules that move via osmosis

A

Water through aquaporins which are protein channels for water to enter the cell through plasma membrane.

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76
Q

Molecules that move via facilitated diffusion

A

Large molecules or small (charged) polar molecules

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77
Q

Why must molecules use facilitated diffusion VS. simple diffusion

A

Simple Diffusion:

The structure of the lipid bilayer allows small, uncharged substances such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, and hydrophobic molecules such as lipids, to pass through the cell membrane, down their concentration gradient, by simple diffusion.
Versus:

Facilitated Diffusion

is the diffusion process used for those substances that cannot cross the lipid bilayer due to their size, charge, and/or polarity but do so down their concentration gradients

Reason Why: molecule size and if they are charged or not

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78
Q

Which of the following moves more passively INTO a cell

Sodium, potassium, chloride, or calcium

A

sodium,chloride,calcium

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79
Q

Which of the following moves more passively OUT of a cell

Sodium, potassium, chloride, or calcium

A

potassium

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80
Q

Which of the following moves more actively INTO a cell

Sodium, potassium, chloride, or calcium

A

potassium

81
Q

Which of the following moves more actively OUT of a cell

Sodium, potassium, chloride, or calcium

A

sodium, chloride, calcium

82
Q

Molecules that move by channel mediated diffusion

A

Sodium, chloride, calcium, potassium

83
Q

Types of protein used channel mediated facilitated diffusion

A

water-filled protein channels

84
Q

What type of diffusion is osmosis

A

Diffusion of water
The type of diffusion that osmosis is would be facilitated diffusion because Water is POLAR and anything small or polar has to go through facilitated difussion

85
Q

what determines which direction water moves

A

movement occurs in response to a difference in relative concentration of water on either side of a membrane.

Water always move from a larger concentration to a lower concentration

86
Q

Which of the following moves more passively OUT of a cell

Sodium, potassium, chloride, or calcium

A

potassium ( Because potassium concentration id higher inside the cell than out of the cell, so it will passively move out of the cell towards the lower concentration

87
Q

Where is the primary location in the cell membrane where osmosis occurs

A

semipermeable (or selectively permeable) membrane

Two ways water crosses membrane

MOST: through phospholipid bilayer

through integral protein water channels

termed aquaporins

Osmosis occurs in cells across the plasma membrane, which is permeable to water but non-permeable to most solutes. Water always moves across the plasma membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration until equilibrium is reached

88
Q

If these solutions 5 moles\liter and 10 moles\liter were om either side of a membrane that only allowed water to cross, which way would water move?

A

If a water gradient exists, water moves by osmosis from where it is more concentrated (side B) to where it is less concentrated (side A) until equilibrium is reached. Osmotic pressure is the pressure exerted by this movement of water.

Note: That water moves toward the solution with the lower water concentration (stated another way, water moves toward the solution with the greater solute concentration).

89
Q

Movement of which of the following will result in more negative charges INSIDE the cell?

Sodium in, potassium in, chloride in, calcium in

A

Chloride in (It’s the only negatively charged ion; Chloride = Cl- going in the cell will result in more negative charges in the cell)

90
Q

Movement of which of the following will result in more negative charges OUTSIDE the cell?

Sodium in, potassium in, chloride in, calcium in

A

Sodium, Potassium, Calcium in (They are positively charged, so when they go in the cell, the inside now has more positive charges and the outside of the cell has more negative charges)

91
Q

Movement of which of the following will result in more negative charges INSIDE the cell?

Sodium out, Potassium out, chloride out, calcium out

A

Sodium, Potassium, Calcium out (positively charges ions leaving the cell will result in the ell having more negative charges)

92
Q

Movement of which of the following will result in more negative charges OUTSIDE the cell?

Sodium out, Potassium out, chloride out, calcium out

A

Chloride out (neagtive ion going outside of the cell results in more negative charges outside of the cell)

93
Q

What would cause a cell to lose water

A

Hypertonic Solution

94
Q

What would cause a cell to gain water

A

Hypotonic Solution

95
Q

What type of diffusion is osmosis

A

Diffusion of water (passive transport)

96
Q

Active Transport

A

There are three main types of Active Transport:

The Sodium-Potassium pump, Exocytosis, and Endocytosis.

97
Q

What distinguished the types of active transport

A

their specific energy source

98
Q

Describe the process of phosphorylation

A

Primary active transport uses energy derived directly from the breakdown of ATP. This breakdown also provides the phosphate group that is added to the membrane transport pump, resulting in a change in the protein’s shape and the subsequent movement of a solute across the membrane. The addition of the phosphate to a protein is called phosphorylation

Phosphorylation makes the pump change shape, re-orienting itself so it opens towards the extracellular space. In this conformation, the pump no longer likes to bind to sodium ions (has a low affinity for them), so the three sodium ions are released outside the cell.

Phosphate group from ATP added to membrane protein to change its shape

99
Q

Describe ion pumps and its functions

A

Cellular protein pumps that move ions across the membrane are more specifically called ion pumps. Ion pumps are a major factor in a cell’s ability to maintain its internal concentrations of ions.

Ca2+ pumps embedded in the plasma membranes of erythrocytes move calcium out of the erythrocyte to prevent it from becoming rigid due to the accumulation of calcium.

H+ pumps are another type of transport protein that function in maintaining cellular pH

The sodium-potassium (Na+/K+) pump is a special type of ion pump. It is specifically called an exchange pump because it moves one type of ion into a cell against its concentration gradient, while moving another type of ion out of the cell against its concentration gradient. (You may find it helpful to think of the Na+/K+ pump as a “dual pump” because it moves two different ions against their respective concentration gradients.) The plasma membrane preserves steep concentration gradient differences for these ions by continuously exporting Na+ out of the cell and moving K+ into the cell.

100
Q

Describe ion pumps and its functions

A

Cellular protein pumps that move ions across the membrane are more specifically called ion pumps. Ion pumps are a major factor in a cell’s ability to maintain its internal concentrations of ions.

Ca2+ pumps embedded in the plasma membranes of erythrocytes move calcium out of the erythrocyte to prevent it from becoming rigid due to the accumulation of calcium.

H+ pumps are another type of transport protein that function in maintaining cellular pH

The sodium-potassium (Na+/K+) pump is a special type of ion pump. It is specifically called an exchange pump because it moves one type of ion into a cell against its concentration gradient, while moving another type of ion out of the cell against its concentration gradient. (You may find it helpful to think of the Na+/K+ pump as a “dual pump” because it moves two different ions against their respective concentration gradients.) The plasma membrane preserves steep concentration gradient differences for these ions by continuously exporting Na+ out of the cell and moving K+ into the cell.

Ion pumps:

Move ions actively

Help cell maintain internal ion concentration

Example: Ca2+ pumps in red blood cell

101
Q

Necessary item for the NA\K pump to function

A

The cell must expend ATP to maintain the levels of these ions on each side of the membrane. The Na+/K+ pump is also called a sodium-potassium ATPase because the protein pump is an enzyme that splits ATP to power the pump.

102
Q

What represents the force to hold back water movement

A

Hydrostatic Pressure (Osmotic Pressure)

One way to stop osmosis is to increase the hydrostatic pressure on the solution side of the membrane; this ultimately squeezes the solvent molecules closer together, increasing their “escaping tendency.”

103
Q

What is the energy molecule used in the NA\K pump

A

ATP

For every ATP molecule that the pump uses, three sodium ions are exported and two potassium ions are imported;

104
Q

What influences osmotic pressure

A

Difference in solution

105
Q

A cell has a glucose concentration of 100 mg\dl. An experiment was conducted with this cell to determine osmosis. This experiment was designed that only water could cross the cell membrane. What would happen to cell relative to osmosis if placed into the following solutions?
A. A solution that has a glucose concentration of 100 mg\dl
B. A solution that has a glucose concentration of 300 mg\dl.
C. A solution that has a glucose concentration of 50 mg\dl

A

A. Isotonic: No net movement (Because amounts are equal)
B. Hypotonic: (Because of lower concentration of solutes and higher concentration of water.
C. Hyperonic:(Because of a a higher concentration of solutes and lower concentration of water)

Isotonic( No change to cell)
Hypotonic ( The cell would Lysis (Burst)
Hypertonic (The cell would Crenation (shrink)

106
Q

What term would describe each of the solutions in the problem above A,B and C?

A

A. Isotonic( No change to cell)
B. Hypotonic ( The cell would Lysis (Burst)
C. Hypertonic (The cell would Crenation (shrink)

107
Q

Note:

A

Gases such as Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide (CO2) can pass freely through the cell membrane. Small polar molecules such as water of H2O can pass but very slowly. They are usually assisted through facilitated diffusion such as with osmosis.

108
Q

Relate Osmolality Why is this relationship important?

A

Osmolality: a measure of the total solute concentration per kilogram of solvent or water
Osmolality: measurement of the amount of solute mixed per volume of solvent

109
Q

Note:

A

Hypotonic (definition): low solute, high solvent
Isotonic (definition): equal solute and solvent ratio
Hypertonic (definition): high solute, low solvent

110
Q

Relate Osmolality of the blood with IV Fluids. Why is this relationship important?

A

Osmolality: a measure of the total solute concentration per kilogram of solvent or water
Osmolality: measurement of the amount of solute mixed per volume of solvent

Lower osmolality is <275 mmol/kg and means blood is hypotonic
Higher osmolality is >295 mmol/kg and means blood is hypertonic

111
Q

Direction of sodium and potassium movement by passive transport (in\out) of cell

A

Sodium (Higher Concentration) = Outside
moves passively inside of the cell to reach a lower concentration

Potassium (Higher Concentration) =Inside
moves passively outside the cell to reach a lower concentration

112
Q

Direction of sodium and potassium movement by active transport (in\out) of cell

A

Sodium (Higher Concentration) = Outside
Moves actively outside of cell to reach a Higher concentration

Potassium (Higher Concentration) =Inside
Moves actively inside the cell to reach a higher concentration

113
Q

Directions of sodium and potassium movement through the sodium\potassium pump

A

Three Na+ pumped out for two K+ pumped in

Maintains steep membrane gradient of Na+ and K+

Na higher out

K higher in

Requires ATP

114
Q

Movement: Sodium into a cell
Type of transport ____________
Change in membrane potential (increase or decrease)

A

Transport= Passive

Membrane potential=

115
Q

Movement: Sodium out of a cell
Type of transport ____________
Change in membrane potential (increase or decrease)

A

Transport= Active

Membrane potential=

116
Q

Movement: Potassium into a cell
Type of transport ____________
Change in membrane potential (increase or decrease)

A

Transport= Active

Membrane potential=

117
Q

Movement: Potassium out of a cell
Type of transport ____________
Change in membrane potential (increase or decrease)

A

Transport= Passive

Membrane potential=

118
Q

Movement: Chloride into a cell
Type of transport ____________
Change in membrane potential (increase or decrease)

A

Transport= Passive

Membrane potential=

119
Q

Movement: Chloride out of a cell
Type of transport ____________
Change in membrane potential (increase or decrease)

A

Transport= Active

Membrane potential=

120
Q

Movement: calcium into a cell
Type of transport ____________
Change in membrane potential (increase or decrease)

A

Transport= Passive

Membrane potential=

121
Q

Movement: Calcium out of a cell
Type of transport ____________
Change in membrane potential (increase or decrease)

A

Transport= Active

Membrane potential=

122
Q

Location of energy used in secondary active transport

A 
Uses energy (ATP) indirectly
Uses energy provided by movement of second substance with its gradient (example: sodium)
123
Q

Energy molecule used in secondary active transport

A

Secondary active transport , created by primary active transport, is the transport of a solute in the direction of its electrochemical gradient and does not directly require ATP.

124
Q

Note: The steps of the NA\K pump

A

The sodium-potassium pump moves K+ into the cell while moving Na+ at a ratio of three Na+ for every two K+ ions .
When the sodium-potassium- ATPase enzyme points into the cell, it has a high affinity for sodium ions and binds three of them, hydrolyzing ATP and changing shape.
As the enzyme changes shape, it reorients itself towards the outside of the cell, and the three sodium ions are released.
The enzyme’s new shape allows two potassium to bind and the phosphate group to detach, and the carrier protein repositions itself towards the interior of the cell.
The enzyme changes shape again, releasing the potassium ions into the cell.
After potassium is released into the cell, the enzyme binds three sodium ions, which starts the process over again.

125
Q

Location of energy used in secondary active transport

A 
Uses energy (ATP) indirectly
Uses energy provided by movement of second substance with its gradient (example: sodium)

Energy source from movement of another substance

126
Q

Energy molecule used in secondary active transport

A

Secondary active transport , created by primary active transport, is the transport of a solute in the direction of its electrochemical gradient and does not directly require ATP.

While secondary active transport consumes ATP to generate the gradient down which a molecule is moved, the energy is not directly used to move the molecule across the membrane.

Unlike in primary active transport, in secondary active transport, ATP is not directly coupled to the molecule of interest. Instead, another molecule is moved up its concentration gradient , which generates an electrochemical gradient. The molecule of interest is then transported down the electrochemical gradient. While this process still consumes ATP to generate that gradient, the energy is not directly used to move the molecule across the membrane, hence it is known as secondary active transport. Both antiporters and symporters are used in secondary active transport.

127
Q

What is necessary for secondary active transport to occur

not sure

A

Symport (Cotransport)

Antiport (Countertransport)

128
Q

Types of secondary transport

A

Symport (Cotransport)

Antiport (Countertransport)

129
Q

What are the differences between the two types of secondary active transport

A

Symport (Cotransport): Two substances moved in the same direction

Antiport (Countertransport): Two substances moved in the opposite direction

130
Q

What transport type uses small vesicles

A

Vesicular Transport

131
Q

What are two examples of the transport that uses small vesicles and direction and movement of each

A

Exocytosis
vesicle fuses with membrane
releases substances outside the cell
(Vesicle releasing its contents from a cell)

Endocytosis
vesicle encloses material outside cell
fuses with membrane to release inside cell
(Vesicle is formed as material is brought into a cell)

132
Q

What is necessary for Vesicular transport

A

Requires vesicles

Requires energy to transport vesicles

133
Q

The membrane bound organelles

A

Membrane-bound organelles:

nucleus

endoplasmic reticulum

golgi apparatus

lysosome

peroxisomes

mitochondria

134
Q

The non membrane bound organelles

A 
Ribosomes 
Cytoskeleton
Centrosomes
Cilia and flagella
Microvilli
Microtubules
Basal bodies
Microfilaments
135
Q

What transport type uses small vesicles

A

Vesicular Transport also known as bulk transport

136
Q

The membrane bound organelles

A

Membrane-bound intracellular organelles include

endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria

137
Q

The largest organelle

A

Nucleus

138
Q

This organelle contains the DNA

A

Nucleus

139
Q

This organelle contain chromosomes

A

Nucleus chromosomes are found on DNA

140
Q

What is necessary for secondary active transport to occur

not sure

A

Symport (Cotransport)

Antiport (Countertransport)

Primary Active Transport
Direct use of ATP to move substances. Ion pumps, like the Potassium-Sodium pump.

Secondary Active Transport
Indirect use of ATP to move substances across a membrane. For example, the potassium-sodium pump moves ions so there might be room for a glucose molecule to hitch a ride on sodium that otherwise wouldn’t be able to get into that cell if the ATP didn’t make room for it.

141
Q

This organelle controls structure and functions of the cell

A

Nucleus (DNA)- controls structure and functions of the cell

142
Q

This organelle is adjacent to the nucleus

A

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

143
Q

The non membrane bound organelles

A

Non-membrane-bound organelles are composed of either protein alone or protein and RNA. They include:

ribosomes, centrosome, proteasomes, and the cytoskeleton.

144
Q

This organelle contains the DNA

A

Nucleus (Mitochondria)

145
Q

Vesicular transport (Extra Information)

A

Vesiclular Transport
Sometimes substances are transported via vesicles. Just like it sounds, they are enclosed in a membrane-bound sac that can cross the plasma membrane. Used for larger substances. It fuses to the membrane and uses exocytosis or endocytosis depending on which direction the materials are going. It fuses to the membrane and releases the substances to the inside(endocytosis) or the outside(exocytosis).

146
Q

What is the central portion of the nucleus

A

nucleolus

147
Q

The membrane of the nucleus

A

Nuclear Envelope

148
Q

Holes in the membrane of the nucleus

A

Nuclear pore

149
Q

The only example of this cell membrane extension is the tail of a sperm

A

Flagella

150
Q

A cell that is anucleate

A

red blood cell (Erthrocyte)

151
Q

What is the term for no nuclei

A

Erthrocyte

152
Q

A cell that is multinucleate

A

eukaryotic cells

153
Q

Two organelles that have cisternae

A

Golgi Apparatus

154
Q

Functions of each type of endoplasmic reticulum

A

The rough ER:
Synthesis: Synthesizes proteins fro secretion, incorporation into the plasma membrane, and as enzymes within lysosomes
Processing molecules: Modifies proteins( for example adds carbohydrates to from glycoprotein, tags for shipping), and stores proteins
Organelle Formation: Helps forms perioxisomes
Vesicle Formation: Forms transport vesicles for shipping of proteins to Golgi apparatus

Smooth ER:

Synthesis: Site of lipid( For example: steroid) synthesis
Processing molecules:Carbohydrate metabolism(For example: Glycogen Synthesis)
Detoxification: Detoxifies drugs and poisons
Vesicle Formation: Forms transport vesicles for shipping to Golgi apparatus

155
Q

Two types of endoplasmic reticulum, what distinguishes each

A

The rough ER

The smooth ER

156
Q

These two organelles digest\destroy items

A

Lysosomes

157
Q

Two types of endoplasmic reticulum, what distinguishes each

A

The rough ER
The smooth ER

The rough ER is composed of membranes with ribosomes attached to their cytoplasmic surface. It is readily distinguishable from the even-surfaced, interconnected tubules of the smooth ER, which lacks associated ribosomes. However, the two are continuous.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) synthesizes- proteins
Smooth ER synthesizes- Lipids

158
Q

The contents of the nucleus

A

nucleoplasm

159
Q

These two organelles digest\destroy items

A

Lysosomes

160
Q

The larger of these two structures: Endoplasmic reticulum or Golgi complex

A

Endoplasmic Reticulum

161
Q

The fluid of the cell

A

Cytoplasm

162
Q

What are items contained in this fluid of the cell

A

Some of the most important organelles that cytoplasm contains are the ribosomes, mitochondria, proteins, the endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, and the the Golgi apparatus

163
Q

What is the term for no nuclei

A

Anucleate- No nuclei: mature red blood cells

164
Q

What is the term for many nuclei

A

multinucleate

165
Q

The only example of this cell membrane extension is the tail of a sperm

A

Flagellum

166
Q

What are items contained in this fluid Cytoplasm of the cell

A

Some of the most important organelles that cytoplasm contains are the ribosomes, mitochondria, proteins, the endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, and the the Golgi apparatus

167
Q

Enclosed spaces of organelles

A

cisternae

168
Q

2 general types of organelles, types based on this

A

membrane-bound organelles and non-membrane-bound organelles. Membrane-bound organelles, or membranous organelles, are enclosed by a membrane similar to the plasma membrane. The membrane separates the organelle’s contents from the cytosol so that the specific activities of the organelle can proceed without disruption from other cellular activities. Membrane-bound organelles include the endoplasmic reticulum (rough and smooth), Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria . Vesicles are temporary membrane-bound structures formed from the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and plasma membrane.

The non-membrane-bound organelles, or nonmembranous organelles, are not enclosed within a membrane. These structures are generally composed of protein and include ribosomes (either attached [bound] to the external surface of the endoplasmic reticulum or free within the cytosol), the centrosome, proteasomes, and the cytoskeleton.

169
Q

What organelle produces enzymes to destroy items

A

Lysosomes also digest molecular structures of damaged organelles in a similar fashion; this process is specifically called autophagy (= to eat). When a cell is damaged or dies, enzymes from its lysosomes are eventually released into the cytosol, resulting in the rapid digestion of the molecular components of the cell itself. This process is called autolysis

170
Q

What organelle uses oxygen and catalase to destroy items

A

Peroxisomes

171
Q

These two organelles digest\destroy items

A

lysosomes and peroxisomes

172
Q

ATP Abbreviation

A

Adenosine Triphosphate

173
Q

The only example of this cell membrane extension is the tail of a sperm

A

Flagella

174
Q

The fluid of the cell

A

cytosol or intracellular fluid

175
Q

What are items contained in this fluid Cytoplasm of the cell

A

inclusions, organelles

176
Q

The intracellular structures that are permanent in the cell, each with specific functions

A

Organelles

177
Q

The intracellular structures that are not essential and temporary, generally for storage

A

inclusions

178
Q

Location of ribosomes (names of each one)

A

They are situated in the cytosol, some bound and free-floating to the membrane of the coarse endoplasmic reticulum.

Assembled in the Cytoplasm

179
Q

3 proteins of the cystoskeleton (List in order from largest to smallest)

A
  1. microtubules
  2. intermediate filaments
  3. microfilaments
180
Q

Functions of each of the 3 proteins of the cytosckeleton

A

Microtubules:

Function to:

maintain cell shape
organize and move organelles
form components of cilia and flagella
participate in cellular vesicle transport
separate chromosomes during cell division

Intermediate filaments:
intermediate in size relative to the microfilaments and microtubules, with a diameter between 8 and 12 nanometers. These less flexible proteins extend across the inside of the cell and function as rigid rods to both support the cell and stabilize junctions between them

Functions of microfilaments:
help maintain cell shape
form internal support of microvilli
separate two cells during cytokinesis
facilitate cytoplasmic streaming
participate in muscle contraction
181
Q

What protein of the cytoskeleton radiates from the centrosome

A

Microtubules of the cytoskeleton

182
Q

3 projections of the cell membrane

A

microvilli, cilia, and flagella

183
Q

orientation of the two centrioles in a pair

A

right angles

184
Q

What is the function of ATP

A

Energy

185
Q

Location of ribosomes (names of each one)

A

They are situated in the cytosol, some bound and free-floating to the membrane of the coarse endoplasmic reticulum.

free
fixed

Assembled in the Cytoplasm

186
Q

Function of ribosomes

A

Protein Synthesis:
1. Bound ribosomes synthesize proteins destined to be incorporated into the plasma membrane, exported from the cell, or housed within lysosomes

2.Free ribosomes synthesize proteins for use within the cell

Function= Protein Synthesis

187
Q

Two organelles that have cisternae

A

ER and golgi apparatus

188
Q

This forms the brush border of the intestines

A

microvilli

189
Q

Cell membrane projections that can create own movement

A

cilia and flagella

190
Q

Cell membrane projection that cannot create own movement

A

microvilli

191
Q

Cell membrane projection that moves objects across the cell surface

A

cilia

192
Q

Cell membrane projection that increases surface area

A

flagella

193
Q

Material that makes up the nucleus

A

DNA, nucleoplasm

194
Q

Types of intercellular junctions

A

tight, adhering, desmososomes, and gap

195
Q

Location of intercellular junctions

A

lateral surfaces

196
Q

This intercellular junction keeps materials from passing in between cells

A

tight junctions

197
Q

This intercellular junction helps transmit electrical impulses from one heart muscle cell to the next

A

gap junctions

198
Q

Functional unit of the body

A

The cell

Chapter 4 (3 decks)

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