chapter 4 outline - Slavery, Freedom, and the Struggle for Empire

Question 1

What was being traded to which areas during the triangular trade? How were areas where slavery was a minor labor force still profiting from the slave trade?

Answer 1

The Caribbean remained the leading revenue source for the British in the 18th century but the plantations of the mainland colonies were becoming more and more profitable
The Triangular Trade
- British - manufactured goods - > Africa and The Colonies
- The Colonies - colonial products (tobacco, indigo, sugar and rice) -> Europe
- Africa - slaves - > Americas
- Merchants in New York, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island facilitated in the slave trade and shipped slaves from Africa to the Caribbean or southern colonies
- The slave economies of the West Indies were the largest market for fish, grain, livestock, and lumber from New England and the Middle colonies
- In Britain, the slave trade contributed to the rise of port cities and the growth of banking, shipbuilding and insurance
In the 18th century, the Atlantic commerce primarily comprised slaves and goods destined for slave societies
For Europeans, ideals of freedom included the freedom to enslave others, and soon race became intertwined with institutionalized slavery

Question 2

How were Africans involved in the slave trade? What were the consequences of the slave trade and the trade of European goods like textiles and guns in Africa?

Answer 2

Most African rulers participated in the slave trade and profitted immensely
They successfully pitted European nations against each other, kept the capture and sale of slaves under their control, and collected taxes from foreign merchants
The slave trade established Africa as another major market for European goods, particularly textiles and guns, although both goods harmed relationships within and between African societies
Textiles disrupted traditional craft production
Guns further encouraged the capturing of slaves, since the only way to obtain European weapons was through providing slave labor
By the 18th century, militarized African states that boasted large armies armed with European weapons arose, seeking to dominate neighboring societies to capture slaves
Slavery grew from a minor fixture of African society to a source of financial and political power for African merchants and rulers
The loss of thousands of able-bodied workers weakened and disillusioned West Africa’s society and economy

Question 3

What were the conditions of ships on the Middle Passage? Where did the majority of slaves arrive at after enduring the Middle Passage? Why did the population of slaves increase in the 18th century?

Answer 3

The transportation of slaves across the Atlantic was known as the Middle Passage, and the conditions of slave ships were unhygienic and cramped
Since slaves were sold for a significant profit in America, slave traders attempted to cram as many bodies as possible on a ship
Many slaves perished along the way from outbreaks of smallpox and measles
The crew usually threw the dead bodies overseas to avoid the spread of disease
The majority of slaves were destined for the West Indies or Brazil, and only a small portion were headed to mainland North America
The slave population grew consistently through the 18th century with the growth of the plantation economy and reproduction between slaves

Question 4

What system of slavery was the oldest and most expansive?

Answer 4

The tobacco-based plantation slavery of the Chesapeake was the oldest and largest system

Question 5

How were the Chesapeake closely connected to the mother country? How did slavery expand in the colonies? What jobs did slaves perform on the plantations, beyond working in the fields (including female slaves)?

Answer 5

Virginia and Maryland were most closely linked to the mother country: Their economy was modeled on England’s mercantilist policy, and they supplied Britain with important agricultural products
Slavery expanded westwards along with the colonies
While most of the slaves worked in the fields, a good portion also labored as teamsters, boatment and in skilled crafts
Female slaves became cooks, seamstresses, dairy maids and personal servants
Slavery was also common on small farms

Question 6

How did slavery affect the economic hierachy of the Chesapeake? What was the social hierachy that developed in the Chesapeake after slavery was institutionalized?

Answer 6

Slavery contributed to higher concentrations of wealth amongst the white population as planters engrossed the best lands, and it formed an extensive hierarchy based on varying levels of freedom
Wealthy planters, merchants who handled the tobacco trade, and lawyers who defended slave owners’ interests all formed Virigina’s elite and dominated the politics
Below them were smaller planters and small landowners
At the bottom were white indentured servants, tenant farmers, convicts and slaves

Question 7

How were the freedoms of free black people restricted in the Chesapeake? What were white peoples’ attitudes towards free black people?

Answer 7

Race gradually solidified as a social hierarchy as race-based discrimination was instituionalized into law
The white public began viewing free black people as threatening and dangerous
The government began prohibiting free black peoples’ rights, such as employing white servants, bearing arms or voting
They were subjected to taxes and could be punished for striking a white person, no matter the causes

Question 8

How did plantations in the Lower South (South Carolina and Georgia) colonies develop? How had the enslavement of local Native tribes developed in the area? What freedoms were originally given to black slaves?

Answer 8

Rice plantations in southern states like South Carolina and George were adopting slave systems as well
The Barbadians who settled South Carolina had originally enslaved the local native population and exported them to the Caribbean
The local Native tribes had welcomed them at first and sold them slaves, mostly war captives and their families
As the plantation system expanded, however, the local Creek Indians were concerned about the encroachment on their land and fearful of being enslaved themselves
They noted that the nearby Spanish-ruled Florida enslaved few people
Frontier conditions gave South Carolina’s African-born slaves more freedom initially
They were allowed to serve in the militia to fight the Spanish and Indians at first, while farming and tending livestock

Question 9

What other crop was introduced in the mid-18th century? How did Africans contribute to the establishment of the Carolina and Georgia plantocracy? How did the conditions required for growing rice affect the development of plantations and slavery in South Carolina? What were the advantages of owning African slaves in rice plantations?

Answer 9

The introduction of the cash crop rice lead to rapid economic development, large-scale slave importation and a clearer racial divide
Indigo was also introduced as a staple crop in the mid 18th century
Since Africans were familiar with rice at home, they were the ones to teach English settlers how to cultivate rice, ironically helping found the wealthiest slave-owning class in North America
Since rice required a significant financial investment to drain swamps and build irrigation systems, it was economically sensible to make the rice plantations as large as possible
Thus, South Carolina planters owned a far greater amount of land and number of slaves compared to their Virginia counterparts
Since mosquitoes on rice plantations carried malaria, a disease most Africans had partial immunity against, planters left the rice fields to the overseers and the slaves

Question 10

What was the system of work for slaves in the Chesapeake plantations?

Answer 10

In the Chesapeake, field slaves worked in groups that were constantly supervised
Under the “task” system developed in the 18th century, individual slaves were assigned different jobs where upon competition, they were free to relax or cultivate their own crops

Question 11

Describe the establishment of the colony of Georgia. What did the founder James Oglethrope envision? Why did the Georgia settlers’ resent his vision, and how did they attempt to change the government?

Answer 11

George was founded by a group of philanthropists led by James Oglethorpe in 1733
James Oglethorpe believed in the abolition of slavery and improved conditions for imprisoned debtors
Rice cultivation also spread to Georgia in the mid-18th century, and the government initially banned slavery and liquor, breeding resentment from the settlers
The colonists began petitioning for self-government so they could enact laws allowing slavery, and the proprietors surrendered the colony to the crown
The colonists formed an elected assembly, then immediately repealed the ban on slavery and liquor and limited land holdings to 500 acres

Question 12

How did slavery develop in Northern colonies, and why was it different compared to the Chesapeake and Lower South? What were attitudes and policies towards enslaved people in the Northern colonies?

Answer 12

Slavery was not as central to Northern economies compared to their Southern counter parts, since small farmers dominated in New England and the Middle Colonies
Slaves were only a small portion of these colonies’ population, and most families owned only one slave
Some areas in Rhode Island and Connecticut developed tobacco fields and livestock farms that employed multiple slaves, but slavery was generally more disperse in the northern colonies
Slavery was still a part of northern colonial life, however
Slaves usually worked as farmhands, helped in artisan shops, performed manual labor on the decks, or became personal servants
Since slaves were a smaller portion of the population, they weren’t viewed as a threat to white society and the laws were less harsh
Slave marriages were recognized by law
Severe physical punishment was prohibited

Question 13

How did slavery develop in New York and Philadelphia?

Answer 13

Slavery in New York City expanded with a lack of white immigration, and slaves eventually comprised a considerable portion of the city’s labor force
Most were domestic servants, but they worked in all sectors
Slavery was also present in Philadelphia, but its significance decreased as artisans and employers realized it made more economical sense to hire wage laborers

Question 14

What was the diversity of African slaves upon their arrival in America? How did the identity of African-American develop during the 18th-century?

Answer 14

When slaves arrived in the Americas in the 18th century, they were a diverse group of people coming from different cultures, speaking different languages, and practicing varied religions
Eventually, the identity of African-American developed and united the slaves through the shared experience of slavery
Creating a cohesive culture and community took many years, but by the 19th century, slaves lost their distinct cultural identities and labeled themselves as African-Americans
When slaves arrived in the Americas in the 18th century, they were a diverse group of people coming from different cultures, speaking different languages, and practicing varied religions
Eventually, the identity of African-American developed and united the slaves through the shared experience of slavery
Creating a cohesive culture and community took many years, but by the 19th century, slaves lost their distinct cultural identities and labeled themselves as African-Americans

Question 15

What were the distinct African-American cultures developed in the three slave systems of British North America?
Consider how the slave populations grew, what conditions they had to endure, how quickly they assimilated, and whether they could form families/commmunities.

Answer 15

The slave population began to reproduce in the Chesapeake by 1740 that allowed for a family-centered slave community
Since there was a large number of white farmers on the plantation, they soon learned English and were involved in American religious practices
On the rice plantations of South Carolina and Georgia, slaves endured harsh conditions and had low birth rates throughout the 18th century, so rice plantations grew dependent on slave importations from Africa
The slaves were distanced from white society and enjoyed more autonomy than other areas of the colonies
They constructed African houses, chose African names and spoke Gullah, a language based on various African languages and not understood by most whites
Despite young, single males dominating in the slave trade, slaves still managed to form families and foster community between generations
Slaves laboring as servants and skilled workers in South Carolina and Georgia had a vastly different experience, and assimilated into American culture far quicker
In the Northern colonies, since slavery was so dispersed, African-American culture developed slowly
Northern slaves had more mobility and access to resources than their Southern counterparts, and many gathered in cities during the holidays to perform African dances
They weren’t able to create stable family life or form tight-knit communities

Question 16

How did enslaved people attempt to resist captivity? What happened during the first slave uprising of the 18th century? How did imperial warfare affect resistance to slavery?

Answer 16

The common thread that linked these regional African-American cultures was the experience of slavery and the desire for freedom
Slaves risked their lives in efforts to resist enslavement for the 18th century
Most fugitives were young African men who had arrived recently and fled to Florida, or tried to pass for free in major cities
The first slave uprising of the 18th century happened in 1712, when a group of slave set houses on the outskirts of New York City on fire, killing the whites that initially arrived at the scene
The eighteen conspirators were consequently executed, and some were tortured and burned alive as warning to the slave population
Warfare between European nations provided opportunities for slave resistance
A slave rebellion in Louisiana while the French and local Indians were at war temporarily prevented the spread of the plantation system to the area
Jamaican fugitive slaves waged warfare against British authorities until their freedom was recognized

Question 17

What happened during the slave rebellion that occured in concurrence with the War of Jenkins’ Ear? How did it end? What was the panic in New York City in 1741 inspired by?

Answer 17

During the War of Jenkins’ Ear, an English-Spanish conflict, a group of South Carolina slaves organized a rebellion
They seized weapons from a nearby store and beat drums to attract followers as they marched southward towards Florida
They burnt houses and killed whites along the way, shouting “Liberty” because Florida’s Spanish rulers offered freedom and protection to fugitive slaves from British colonies
Eventually, the rebellion was quelled by the local militia, although some slaves were able to escape to Spain and joined the Spanish army
A panic encompassed New York City in 1741 when widespread rumors about slaves and white allies conspiring to burn down the city emerged
Several slaves and a few white people were arrested and a portion of them were executed
These rebellions and crises disproved the notion that slaves did not wish for liberty

Question 18

What was Britain’s status in the 18th century? How was British patriotism developing?

Answer 18

Great Britain in the 18th century prided itself on being the most advanced and free nation, boasting a great navy and commercial power, a complex governmental system and powerful Parliament that represented the interests of the landowning aristocrats and merchant class
Britain was in conflict with the French, its major continental rival, for the majority of the 18th century, leading to high taxes, large military establishment and the founding of the Bank of England
These international conflicts helped both the British and the colonists develop stronger national identities
Britain’s patriotism grew more and more assertive throughout the 18th century
Symbols of British identity were increasingly visible
British saw itself as a place of Protestant faith, economic prosperity, individual liberty, and the dominance of the law

Question 19

How did British liberty idealogy evolve after the English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution? How was it meant to be distinct from other European powers? How did the British government reflect liberty?

Answer 19

British ideals of liberty were further entrenched after the struggles of the English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution, and vilified other nations for being “enslaved”, in terms of popery, tyranny or barbarism
British freedom was tied closely with Protestant values and invoked to contrast Britain with foreign Catholic nations
The British political system of the House of Commons, House of Lords and the king checking each others’ powers was praised by many and the British claimed that under this balanced constitution, political tyranny would be avoided

Question 20

How was the idea of liberty shifting and spreading during the 18th century?

Answer 20

The language of liberty was widespread not only amongst government officials and intellectual writers, but also amongst craftsmen and laborers
The idea of liberty was continually shifting from its previous association with privileges provided to the upper classes to its new definition of a universal right to oppose tyrannical government
Liberty became a battle cry for the rebellious during protests of traditional rights violations, such as merchants raising the cost of bread or the Royal Navy’s practice of impressment: kidnapping men on the streets for maritime service

Question 21

How was liberty central to the idea of Republicanism? What party in Britain was the main advocate of this idealogy? How was Republicanism’s writings influential in America?

Answer 21

Liberty was central to two political ideologies, one of which was republicanism
Republicanism encouraged economically independent citizens to actively partake in public life as practicing their liberty
Republicanism claimed that only property-owning citizens possessed “virtue” (willingness to sacrifice self-interest for the greater good)
Republicanism was generally associated with the Country Party, since most of their supporters were the landed aristocrats
The Country Party criticized the British political order for succumbing to political manipulation and urged for the election of independent men that couldn’t be influenced by the ministry
They were also against the expansion of national debt and financiers profiting off of the commercialized economy
The Country Party’s publicists John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon weren’t impactful in Britain, but their writings had an eager American audience of elites that were interested in the emphasis on the independent landowner’s political role

Question 22

How was liberty central to the idea of Liberalism? What main philospher was the main advocate of this idealogy? How was liberalism influential in America? How did l

Answer 22

Liberalism was the other political idea that freedom was integral to, focusing on the individual and private
John Locke was the leading philosopher and his book Treatises of Government had great influence in the 18th-century
His book asserted that government was a mutual agreement among equals as men surrendered some of their right to govern themselves to enjoy the benefits of the rule of law
However, they retained their natural rights including protection of life, liberty and property that included prohibiting state interference in private matters like family relations, preferences and economic activity
However, liberalism was limited in its scope of who it considered “free individuals”, meaning only propertied white men

Question 23

How did the idealogies of liberalism and republicanism interact? What was their most important impact in America?

Answer 23

Liberalism and republicanism would come to be seen as different understandings of freedom
In the 18th-century, these two systems of thought would often overlap or reinforce each other
Both political ideals could prevent tyrannical power and encourage a commitment to constitutional government, and both centered freedom around owning property
Most importantly, both ideas would be spread across the Atlantic to the colonies and eventually cause divide within the empire

Question 24

To what extent was America’s democracy different from Britain? How were the voting requirements in the colonies different from Britain?

Answer 24

Politics in 18th-century America were typically more democratic than in Britain
Suffrage requirements in the colonies varied from area to area, but in Britain property qualification was always included in voting laws, to ensure only men with economic stake in society had the power to determine policy
In the colonies, since there was a greater distribution of land, a significantly higher portion of the population enjoyed voting rights
The colonies were still not progressive in a modern sense, and only in a few instances did minorities or white women enjoy the right to vote

Question 25

Although there was a larger number of white men in the electorate, what factors limited their power in colonial governments and affecting day-to-day policies?

Answer 25

Although there was a broad electorate among white men, most people did not affect policies on a day-to-day basis
Close elections were only seen in the Middle Colonies, while in other areas most elections were uncontested because there was only one candidate or the local culture emphasized community unity
Appointed government officials were the ones who held significant power, not the elected offices
Governors and councils had been appointed in five royal colonies and by the proprietors of Pennsylvania and Maryland
Laws passed by colonial assemblies could be vetoed by governors or in London
Elected officials had higher property qualifications than voters, so most legislators were part of the upper classes and usually operated as an oligarchy
In South Carolina, most of the legislators were planters or wealthy merchants
In some colonies where most free white men did enjoy the right to vote, they were hindered by the tradition of “deference”: ordinary people assumed that the social elite had a right to public office
In Virginia, aspirants of public office sought to appeal to ordinary voters by distributing food and liquor freely at the voting courthouse
Even in New England, where there a significant number of elective positions, most of the town leaders were the largest property holders and public offices were passed down within families
Most Americans didn’t enthusiastically run for elective office or take an active role in politics at the time

Question 26

What was Britain’s statutory neglect policy towards the colonies?

Answer 26

The British government, distracted by events in Europe, took a policy of “statutory neglect” toward the colonies and left them to effectively govern themselves
Since imperial authority was so weak, landowners, merchants and lawyers that dominated colonial assemblies claimed power over local politics

Question 27

How did governors compete for power over the colonial assemblies/American elite in the 17th century, and how did that shift during the 18th century? What powers did elected colonial assemblies exercise over appointed governors and councils in the 18th century ? How did governors adapt to elected assemblies’ rise in power in colonial governments?

Answer 27

In the 17th century, the governor was the center of political authority while colonial assemblies were weak and met infrequently, but by the 18th century, economic development gave the American elite more power and allowed them to dominante

Elected colonial assemblies exerted influence over appointed governments and councils through their control of the local economies, believing they were representing the will of the public
They authorized salaries annually and refused to raise taxes unless they were offered concessions on office appointments, land policy or other issues
Governors that were successful adapted to the rising power of the assemblies and used their powers to become allies with the assembly members

Question 28

What were sources of conflict between governors and colonial assembies? What did the leaders of elected assemblies reference in their negotiations with royal governors?

Answer 28

Governors were opposed to colonies printing paper money to substitute for the lack of gold and silver coins
- Land policy
- Level of rent charged to farmers on land owned by the crown or proprietors
Leaders of elected assemblies cited the writings of the English County Party in negotiation and conflicts with royal governors, claiming they possessed the right to represent popular consent to government and defend the colonists’ liberties

Question 29

How did Pennsylvania establish the most power assembly of the colonies?

Answer 29

Pennsylvania housed the most powerful assembly by establishing the only unicameral (one house) legislature of the colonies through wrestling control from a group of governors
Following closely behind were New York, Virginia, South Carolina and Massachusetts

Question 30

Where did political debates and discussions expand to beyond townhouses? What was one of the most famous establishments? Who attended these establishments?

Answer 30

Political debate and discussion expanded beyond elected and legislative politics, allowing informed citizens to openly discuss political issues
In Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, the popularity of clubs where literary, philosophical, scientific, and political issues were debated was growing
The best known club was “Junto” founded by Benjamin Franklin, and evolved into the American Philosophical Society
Clubs like this usually comprised the economic and political elite, although some appealed to common citizens
Coffeehouses and taverns were also popular spots for political debate

Question 31

How did newspapers and libraries established in the colonies? What was the first library and the best-edited newspaper? What did colonial newspapers initially report on, and how did that adapt by the mid-18th century?

Answer 31

British America’s colonies were unique in their use of the printing press, which spread rapidly during the 18th century with increase in literacy
Circulating libraries appeared in colonial towns, allowing less wealthy folks access to written knowledge, since books were still expensive at the time
The first library was the Library Company of Philadelphia, founded by Benjamin Franklin
The number of colonial papers were also steadily increasing through the 18th-century
The best-edited newspaper was the Pennsylvania Gazette, which was later bought by Franklin
Newspapers were at first focused on advertisements, religious affairs, and reporting on British society and government; by the mid-18th century, political commentary was centered in American press

Question 32

To what extent were the freedom of expression and speech protected in the American colonies? How did the government attempt to censor printed sources, and what could people be punished for?

Answer 32

Free expression was not considered a natural right for Englishmen and free speech had no legal protection outside of the legislators in Parliament
Colonies in America also considered freedom of speech dangerous, believing that citizens could be easily misled by printed misinformation
Prior to the late 17th-century, nothing was printed without government licence
After the British law requiring licencing of printed works before publication terminated, the government attempted to control printed sources through paying publishers and journalists
People could still be punished for “seditious libel” - printing false information, including defaming government officials

Question 33

What were elected assemblies’ attitudes toward freedom of press? To what extent did colonial newspapers attempt to defend freedom of press?

Answer 33

Elected assemblies were often disencouraging of freedom of press
Many publishers were brought in front of assemblies and forced to apologize for defamatory comments regarding members, and jailed if they refused to comply
Colonial newspapers defended freedom of the press as a key aspect of liberty, arguing that citizens had the right to keep the government accountable and criticize public officials
Government publishing contracts were essential to economic success though, so most newspapers didn’t attack politicians unless funded by an opponent

Question 34

What were the details of the Zenger Case? Who was the defended by, what was the outcome of the trial, and how did it reflect the greater will of the people?

Answer 34

John Peter Zenger was put on trial for seditious libel because his newspaper, the Weekly Journal, exposed the corruption of Governor WIlliam Cosby of New york
Zenger was found not guilty after a passionate defense by his attorney Andrew Hamiltion, who urged the jury to choose in the favor of freedom of speech, even if Zenger’s words were offensive
Zenger was found not guilty, representing the popular sentiment of honest journalism and that the public was not opposed to the criticism of public officials

Question 35

What factors contributed to the Great Awakening?

Answer 35

Church leadership was concerned that westward expansion, economic development, the growing popularity of Enlightenment reason, and individuals losing engagement with the church was underscoring threatening religious piety
This inspired the Great Awakening, a series of religious revivals across the colonies that re-oriented the religious landscape
New Jersey clergyman Theodore Frelinghuysen and other ministers of his kind adopted a more emotional style of preaching

Question 36

Who were the two important figures of the Great Awakening and what was their impact? What was their impact on the future American Revolution?

Answer 36

• Johnathan Edwards: Congregationalist (new kind of Puritan), thinks all humans are born sinners and going to hell (Calvinism) / Gave sermons about the sinful nature of humans
• English minister George Whitefield brought his emotional preaching style to the colonies, appealing to the passions of his audience with graphic descriptive language (addressed all demoninations of Protestantism)
• Thousands of colonists followed Whitefield’s sermons and made him a celebrity, helping establish the revivals as a turning point in American history
  Whitefield inspired other evangelists (traveling preachers) to hold revivalist meetings, posing a threat to established ministers
• Renewal of religious piety united the colonists and gave people an avenue for their own opinions instead of just following the established elite

Question 37

Why did some people oppose the Great Awakening? What were the religious impacts of the Great Awakening?

Answer 37

However, there were opponents to the Great Awakening, and they condemned revivalist preachers for lacking theological education and inciting disorder in churches
Still, revivalists managed to disrupt the religious configuration of the colonies and progress religious liberty
Churches split into factions of traditionalists and revivalists, and new churches appeared rapidly, some of them criticizing government funding for churches as a hindrance to religious freedom

Question 38

What did the Great Awakening influence outside of the religious scene? Who were usually the members of revivalist churches stemming from the Great Awakening, and what did these churches condemn? How did religious leaders and slave owners reconcile Christanity and slaveholding? How did the revival affect African slaves?

Answer 38

The Great Awakening not only altered the religious scene, it also mirrored existing social questions, inspired questioning of authority, and led to criticism of aspects of colonial society
Revivalist churches usually hosted members of less wealthy backgrounds
They also condemned the wealthy for being greedy and making profit, and attacked upper class for being preoccupied with worldly influence and vices
A few preachers openly denounced slavery, while some converts freed their slaves after concluding that all races were equal in Christ
Most slave masters managed to reconcile Christanity and slaveholding
Most importantly, the revival converted many African slaves to Christianity, a crucial step in their cultural shift to African-Americans
The Great Awakening broadened the range of religious beliefs for Americans, leaving them simultaneously more divided and more integrated into transatlantic religious developments

Question 39

What was the status of the Spanish empire’s outposts in North America in the 18th century, especially in comparison to the English colonies?

Answer 39

English North American colonies’ growth was accompanied by European powers competing for power
Spain encompassed a vast amount of land, but non-English colonies were still thinly populated and economically weaker
The Spanish government tried to revitalise its Northern American empire in the late 18th century by stabilizing relations with Native tribes and founding missionary outposts
They ultimately failed and their economy still relied primarily on extracting Native labor and trading with the Native tribes

Question 40

What caused Spanish’s colonization of Carolina? How did they treat the Native local population?

Answer 40

Spain felt threatened by Russian fur traders settling in Alaska, so they ordered the colonization of California
Father Junipero Serra founded the first California mission and oversaw the missionary system
While he was praised by the Spanish for converting thousands of Natives, many Native people died from forced labor and disease at Serra’s missions
California was primarily a missionary frontier and the outposts served as religious institutions, as well as centers for government and labor
They aimed to assimilate the Native local population into Spanish society, hoping to convert them to Christanity and switch them for settled farming
The Native population was decimated by the Spanish’ arrival, since they were not immune to Spanish diseases and enslaved to grow grain, work in orchards and vineyards, and tend to cattle

Question 41

Why were the French the primary rival of the English in North America?

Answer 41

The French empire was the primary rival to the British monopoly on North America
The French colony in Canada increased in population and expanded their economy during the 18th century
French traders also took control of the important sections of the Mississippi River valley, and prosperous farming communities and plantations in New French
The French population remained small in comparison to English colonists, since anti-emigration to America sentiments were popular in France
Nonetheless, their control over a large territory and attempts to form relations with the Native tribes made France a prominent threat to the British empire and the two nations competed for trade alliances with the local Native tribes in the mid-America region

Question 42

What was the Ohio Valley and its significance to imperial tension between England and France? What were the Natives’ role in the conflict? What conspired to spark the Seven Years’ War?

Answer 42

The western frontier of the English colonies became an important battleground for imperial rivalries, with conflicts between the French, British, opposing Native American tribes, and settlers and land corporations defending their own interests
The Shawnees, Delawares, Cherokees, CHikasaws and Iroquois all occupied the middle ground
Native American tribes realized direct warfare with the Europeans was a poor strategic move and allying with one European power exposed themselves to attacks from rivals
They attempted to play the European empires off each other and retain control over profitable trade with them
Few white settlers were living in the Ohio Valley in the prior to the mid-17th century, but white colonists were already coveting the land’s fertile soil
A land grant was offered by Virginia to the Ohio Company, posing a threat to local Native tribes and Pennsylvania land speculators
The French were motivated to increase their presence in the region, but the Ohio Company insisted the French respect their land claim, marking the beginning of the Seven Years’ War

Question 43

Who was initially winning the Seven Years’ War? What was the result?

Answer 43

1756 - 1763 The Seven Years’ War began with the French and their Native allies winning several victories, and brutal practices were used by both sides
However, once Prime Minister William Pitt raised large sums of money and enlisted soldiers and naval forces, the tide of the war turned
Pitt also provided funds for Prussia and Austria in the European stage of the war, allowing them to defend against French and their ally Spain
In 1759, the war ended with the British victorious and taking control of most French land claims in North America and trading in India

Question 44

What was decided in the Treaty of Paris after the Seven Years’ War? What changes in ownership of land were made between Spain, France and England? What were the financial consequences of the war?

Answer 44

After the Seven Years’ War, the Treaty of Paris dictated the following shuffling of land:
The French ceded Canada to the British and gained control over the sugar islands of Guadeloupe and Martinque
Spain ceded Florida to Britain in exchange for the Philippines and Cuba
Also acquired the Louisiana colony from France
With the French losing almost all of their North American colonies Great Britain established itself as the dominant European power in North America
There were many economical ramifications of the war, spurring a financial crisis in France and causing the English to raise taxes on the colonists

Question 45

How did the Treaty of Paris affect Native American tribes that fought in the war? What were Native Americans’ reaction to the Treaty of Paris?

Answer 45

Native Americans viewed the French victory as a threat to their own freedom
France had ceded Native land to the English without previously consulting them
Native tribes had fought on both sides, although primarily as French allies
Their main goal was to remain independent from both European powers, and they viewed continued British expansion as a concern to their freedom
The Treaty of Paris increased Native dependence on the British, and caused confusion about land claims, control of the fur trade, and tribal relations
The Native Americans of the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes instigated a rebellion against British rule in 1763
Neolin, a Delaware prophet, experienced a vision and was told to reject European technology, end commercial ties and reclaim their territory from the British
Neolin preached this idea along with the formation of a pan-Native identity, since the common feeling of displacement was uniting tribal communities

Question 46

What was the Pontiac Rebellion? How did the English colonies respond? What measures were taken by the British forces to prevent future conflict? What were the settlers reactions?

Answer 46

The Ottawas, Hurons and other Native American tribes attacked British outposts and killed white settlers that intruded on Native land in 1763
British forces launched a counterattack and the tribes slowly made peace over the next years
However, London was compelled by the rebellion to issue the Proclamation of 1763, prohibiting colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains
In addition, selling Native lands to private individuals was banned
The British issued The Proclamation less to protect Native land from colonization and more so to stabilize relations with the Natives and avoid further conflict on the frontier
The Proclamation angered many settlers and speculators who were hoping to capitalize on France’s loss by purchasing Native land

Question 47

How did the Seven Years’ War affect the colonists’ sense of identity and affect patriotism?

Answer 47

Similar to the Natives, the Seven Years’ War had unified the colonists and provided them a sense of collective identity
There was a proposal to form a Grand Council comprising delegates from all colonies to make decisions regarding Native relations and levy taxes, but it was rejected by the colonial assemblies
Colonists also had a heightened sense of pride in being a part of the British empire
Colonial militiamen and British soldiers fought together during the war
The defeat of the French reinforced British ideals of Protestantism, British nationality and freedom
However, the British Empire now hosted French Catholics and Indian subjects, and the empire’s vast amount of competing interests would soon pose a threat to liberty