CHAPTER 4. EXPLAINING SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING Flashcards
What does the following description refer to?
explained learning in terms of imitation, practice, reinforcement (or
feedback on success), and habit formation. Much of the early research within behaviourist theory was done with laboratory animals, but the learning process was hypothesized to be the same for humans.
Behaviourist Perspective
What do the following items refer to?
- The acquisition-learning hypothesis He contrasts these two terms.
- The monitor hypothesis
- The natural order hypothesis
- The input hypothesis
- The affective filter hypothesis
Krashen’s “Monitor model”
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We ‘acquire’ as we are exposed to samples of the second language we understand in much the same way that children pick up their first language-with no conscious attention to language form.
The acquisition-learning hypothesis - He contrasts these two terms
What does the following description refer to?
We ‘learn’ on the other hand through conscious attention to form and rule learning.
The acquisition-learning hypothesisHe contrasts these two terms
What does the following description refer to?
The acquired system initiates a speaker’s utterances and is responsible for spontaneous language use.
The monitor hypothesis
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or ‘monitor’, making minor changes and polishing what the acquired system has produced. Such monitoring takes place only when the speaker/writer has plenty of time, is concerned about producing correct language, and has learned the relevant rules.
The monitor hypothesis
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It was based on the finding that, as in first language acquisition, second language acquisition unfolds in predictable sequences.
The natural order hypothesis
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The language features that are easiest to state (and thus to learn) are not necessarily the first to be acquired.
The natural order hypothesis
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Acquisition occurs when one is exposed to language that is comprehensible and that contains i + 1.
- The ‘i’ represents the level of language already acquired
- The ‘+1’ is a metaphor for language (words, grammatical forms, aspects of pronunciation) that is just a step beyond that level.
The input hypothesis
What does the following description refer to?
The fact that some people who are exposed to large quantities of comprehensible input do not necessarily acquire a language successfully is accounted for by Krashen’s affective filter hypothesis.
• The ‘affective filter’ is a metaphorical barrier that prevents learners from acquiring language even when appropriate input is available.
The affective filter hypothesis
What does the following description refer to?
Krashen suggests that we ‘acquire’ language as we are exposed to samples of
language that we understand in much the same way that children pick up their first language—with no conscious attention to language form.
We ‘learn’ on the other hand through conscious attention to form and rule learning
acquisition/learning hypothesis
What does the following description refer to?
second language users draw on what they have acquired when they engage in
spontaneous communication. They may use rules and patterns that have been learned as an editor or ‘monitor’, allowing them to make minor changes and polish what the acquired system has produced
monitor hypothesis
What does the following description refer to?
It was based on the finding that, as in first language acquisition, second language acquisition unfolds in predictable sequences. The language rules that are easiest to state (and thus to learn) are not necessarily the first to be acquired
natural order hypothesis
What does the following description refer to?
acquisition occurs when one is exposed to language that is
comprehensible and contains i + 1. The ‘i’ represents the level of language already acquired, and the ‘+ 1’ is a metaphor for language (words, grammatical forms, aspects of pronunciation) that is just a step beyond that level.
comprehensible input hypothesis
What does the following description refer to?
is proposed to account for the fact that some people who are exposed to large
quantities of comprehensible input do not necessarily acquire language successfully. The ‘affective filter’ is a metaphorical barrier that prevents learners from acquiring language even when appropriate input is available. Affect refers to feelings of anxiety or negative attitudes
Affective filter hypothesis
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a new perspective known as cognitive psychology began to take hold. It focuses on mental process. This area of psychology is concern with memory, thinking, problem solving, language and decision-making. (
The cognitive perspective
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Cognitive psychologists, working in an information-processing model, see SLA as the building up of knowledge that can eventually be called on automatically for speaking and understanding.Norman Segalowitz (2003) and others have suggested that learners have to pay attention at first to any aspect of the language that they are trying to understand or produce.
Information processing
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Information that we have and we know we have. (knowledge that)
Declarative knowledge
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knowledge that underlines fluent or automatic performance. ( knowledge how)
Procedual knowledge
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this approach was proposed by Tomasello, M (2008).
Usage based learning
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Usage based learning is an approach to understanding learning that sees learning as the creation of links (connections) between bits of information.
Usage based learning
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Unlike innatists, connectionists do not assume that there is a neurological module specifically designed for SLA. All learning is based on the same process
Usage based learning
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Unlike skill theorists, connectionists do not assume that new knowledge must first be declarative.
Usage based learning
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The frequency with which information is encountered is a strong predictor of how easily it will be learned.
Usage based learning
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Neurological connections are made between language and a particular meaning or a situation (e.g. people usually say Hello when they answer the phone) and between elements of language itself (e.g. noticing that say always occurs with / or we / you / they / and that says always occurs with he / she/ it)
Usage based learning
What does the following description refer to?
It is closely related to the connectionist perspective.It is also based on the hypothesis that language acquisition occurs without the necessity of alearner’s focused attention or the need for any innate brain module that is specifically for language.It can be described as an explanation for language acquisition that takes into accounts not onlylanguage form but also language meaning and language use.
The competition model
What does the following description refer to?
It proposes that one of most effective methods of learning a new language is through personal and direct interaction
The interaction hypothesis
What do the following authors argue –Evelyn Hatch (1978) –Michael Long (1983, 1996) –Teresa Pica (1994) –Susan Gass (1997)
The interaction hypothesis
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learners need is opportunities to interact with other speakers, working together to reach mutual comprehension through negotiation for meaning.
The interaction hypothesis
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efforts by the native speaker to ensure that the learner has understood (for example, ‘The bus leaves at 6:30. Do you understand?’).
Comprehension checks
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efforts by the learner to get the native speaker to clarify something that has not been understood (for example, ‘Could you repeat please?’). These requests from the learner lead to further modifications by
the native speaker.
Clarification requests
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the more proficient speaker repeats his or her sentence either partially or in its
entirety (for example, ‘She got lost on her way home from school. She was walking home from school. She got lost.’)
Self-repetition or paraphrase
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It states that we acquire language when we attempt to transmit a message but fail and have to try again
comprehensible output hypothesis
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A hypothesis that input does not become intake for language learning unless it is noticed. (Schmidt 1990
The noticing hypothesis
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“It claims that learner must attend to and notice linguistic features of the input that they are exposed to if those forms are to become intake for learning.”
The noticing hypothesis
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The claim that “noticing” but not “understanding” is required for learning
The noticing hypothesis
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“Learners cannot learn the grammatical features of a language unless they notice them.”
The noticing hypothesis
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“Noticing is the essential starting point for acquisition.”
The noticing hypothesis:
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According to Van Patten, (1996; 200), input directly affects the process of second language acquisition and Output plays the minimum role (accessing the developing system. The capacity of working memory is limited.
Input processing
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It was originally developed as a result of studies of the acquisition of German word order and, later, on the basis of research with L2 learners on English (Pienamann, 1989)
Processability theory:
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The research showed that the sequence of development for features of syntax and morphology was affected by how easy these were to process.
Processability Theory
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It integrates developmental sequences with L1 influence.
Processability Theory
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Learners do not simply transfer features from their L1 at early stages of acquisition.
Processability Theory
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They have to develop a certain level of processing capacity in the L2 before they can use their knowledge of the features that already exist in their L1.
Processability theory
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- Practice should be interactive.
- Practice should be meaningful.
- There should be a focus on task-essential forms.
‘cognitive-interactionist perspective (Lourdes Ortega, 2007)
What does the following description refer to?
It views speaking and thinking as tightly interwoven. Speaking (and writing) mediates thinking, which means that people can gain control over their mental processes as a consequence of internalizing what others say to them and what they say to others
Sociocultural Perspective
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–It focuses on the social context as central to learning.
Sociocultural Perspective
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Stresses the importance of social interaction, communication and instruction in learning.
The sociocultural perspective
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The social environment is not just a place where learning happens, it is integral to it.
the sociocultural perspective
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–Explains individual differences in learning.
Sociocultural Perspective
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–Speaking (and writing) mediates thinking.
sociocultural Perspective
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–Differences between Zone Proximal development ZPD i+1
sociocultural perspective
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- Language acquisition takes place in the interactions of learner and interlocutor.
- Greater importance is attached to the conversations, with learning occurring through the social interaction.
Vygotsky ́s Sociocultural theory
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- Interaction needs to be modified and through negotiation for meaning.
- Emphasis is on the individual cognitive process in the mind of the learner.
Interaction hypothesis
