Chapter 4 - Codes in society Flashcards
Do monolingual countries exist?
NO.
- even a very unified country like german has many different language communities in it
What is Bilingualism
- allows an individual to function at some level in more than one language
- Same as Multilingualism
What is code switching?
Switching from one language to another
- Extremely common and normal for people who control more than one language
Is anyone monolingual?
NO. everyone controls multiple varieties of their native language
Choosing the right code is NOT the same as…
choosing the correct grammar
What is a balanced bilingual?
Equal abilities in multiple Ls - VERY RARE
What determines the code we select
The social context
typical interaction
Are called Domains
What are th 5 domains of typical interaction discovered by Joshua Fishman
Home, education, employment, religion, friendship
What is happening with Guarani in Paraguay
- interesting multilingualism
- half were bilingual (guarnani and spanish)
- 40% monolingual Guarani
- 10% spanish
What is the functional distribution in paraguay
Guarani - less formal situations - friendship, family, education
Spanish - More formal: Religion, employment, education
= NO competition called functional specialization
Bilingualism can lead to…
- Language loss
- Diffusion – certain features spread from one language to the other language
- After many years even syntax can be affected
Which levels of languages are quickly changed? which are stubborn?
- phonology is the easiest to change
- morphology is stubborn but does change
- syntax is the most resistant to change
Explain the Example in the village of Kupwar about how bilingualism affects languages
• 4 languages are spoken:
o Marathi (lowest class/caste) & Urdu (Muslims)
o Kannada (highest class/caste)
o Telugu (rope makers)
• Trilingualism is normal
• Consequence: convergence of varieties (syntax)
• Lexicon distinguishes varieties
who coined the term Diglossia
• Charles Ferguson
what are the 3 features of diglossia according to Charles Ferguson
- 2 varieties of the same L in the community, HIGH (h)-official L & LOW(L) - spoken at home
- They have Distinct functions (no overlap)
- No High language for everyday communication
Example of a diglossia
- Everyone learns standard german (H) in school but they use swiss german (L) to talk to their family
What are the 5 characteristics of Diglossia
1) Persistency
2) Functional Distribution
3) Prestige
4) Literary Heritage
5) All members learn (L) variety
Explain Persistency
– every diglossia is a societal arrangement that persists for several generations
Explain Functional Distribution
- the functions that each language fulfills do not overlap so there is no competition between the languages
ex. England after the Norman Conquest (english and French)
What did Jeffery Chaucer do?
broke the diglossia when he wrote a book in English not french
Explain Prestige
- the high variety must have power while the low variety lacks said power
- H language = codified
ex. Swiss german doesn’t have same political power as standard german
ex 2. mennonites use german bible but they don’t understand it
What is literary Heritage
- because there is literature in that language, the high language is referred to as representing the language itself
Give example of where all speakers must learn the LOW variety
Haiti : everyone knows the creole, not everyone speaks the standard L french
What is a Leaking Diglossia
- when there is one or two points that are not totally fulfilled
- but it is more a diglossia than not
how is diglossia associated with social distinction?
• Diglossia reinforces social distinctiono
E.g. Haiti – women are not given opportunity to learn standard French
- extending the high L is threat to power structure!
What is a narrow diglossia
– Low is related to high
ex. standard german and swiss german
What is a broad diglossia (fishman’s extension)
- Low and high are not related
Ex. Paraguay (Guarani and spanish)
What happens when there is contact b/w high and low
- High lexical items in low variety
* Result = admixture of high vocab in low variety
What is a Doublet
two words referring to the same object
o E.g. England (11th – 11th century):
- English spoken by farm people, French language of nobility
- Animals were given names by English farmers but once the meet reaches the higher classes they rename it
What are the 4 possible mixtures of bilingualism and diglossia (since they aren’t the same thing!)
and examples
1) bilingualism and diglossia
- paraguay
2) bilingualism without diglossia
- modern Germany
3) Diglossia without bilingualism
- Arabic countries
4) neither
- monolingual parts of US
What is Inter-sensational code-switching
changing codes “at sentence or clause boundaries”
What is Intra-sentential code-switching (or as some scholars call it- code mixing)
switching mid sentence/clause
What are the two types of code switching?
1) Situational (transactional)
2) Metaphorical (non-situational)
Give an example of situational code-switching
- E.g. hemnesberget
- 2 varieties: Bokmal (official), Ranamal (casual- vernacular)
- seeing a friend at a bank: as the topic changes from informal to formal, the situation changes and then the code changes
What Metaphorical code-switching?
example?
when you want to emphasize something/ achieve a special effect, or to show your belonging to a group
Ex. Norwegian teacher delivering a lecture in Bokmal, then switching to Ranamal to encourage discussion (the subject stays the same but the tone of the conversation has changed)
How can selecting a code be?
o Major identity marker that can be used as a tool to establish, cross or destroy social boundaries
o Symbol of power that can create, evoke or change interpersonal relations (refusing to code switch can determine relationship with other person)
Who can selecting a code be used as a political expression?
example?
• To assert a right (demanding to be served in French in ontario)
• To resist some other power - Using Welsh in Wales
• To claim a political identity
,
-E.g. Russian in Ukrainian setting
Give example of how code-switching can be used as a tool to express solidarity
- E.g. re-creolized varieties in the UK
- E.g. Puerto Rican community in NY – a mixed code became accepted and established.
- E.g. Strasbourg (b/w Germany and france) – it’s a sign of local identity to switch b/w french and german
What did Dominican American high school students do to establish identity?
They created a code that alternates b/w spanish and english
What is Tag Switching?
• people don’t fully switch to the other L but use tags
- Tags: interjections, sentence filters (i.e. isn’t it)
• Tags are solidarity markers between two minority group members
What is Quotational Switching
• Referential – switches codes to QUOTE another speaker
- Creates the impression that those are the exact words that were
- tells us something about their identity
Is code switching uniform?
example?
NO, there is a lot of variation from community to community and within communities
How does code-switching vary in a Puerto Rican community in new jersey?
- Code-switch freely both in everyday talk & formal meetings
- Speak only Spanish on formal occasions, code-switch in informal talk
- Speak mainly English , code witch with small children or neighbours
What are some attitudes towards code-switching
• Puristic views - critical of code-switching
• Ex. Derogatory names:
-franglais, tex-mex, Spanglish
• Resistance to code-switching
Code Switchers…
- sophisticated knowledge of both codes
- Aware of community norms
- Is a source of pride
What is the equivalence constraint model of code switching?
o If the two languages share points in their grammatical structure we can only code switch at that point but if they do not share strutures code-switching will not occur
What is the Markedness Model? (Carol Myers-scotton)
- Speakers have marked & unmarked choices
- Marked choice is unexpected, unmarked is the norm
- These choices vary by situation
ex. Variety A is the unmarked choice when meeting someone, but once you know them you can switch to variety B
e.g. English vs indigenous Ls in Nigeria
• When pulled over code switching to English is a better strategy because it shows your status
Is marked and unmarked the same as high and low?
NO
What is the Matrix Language Frame Model (Carol Myers-scotton)
when you code switch the dominant -frame/matrix language provides the structure/syntax
- The dominated language (embedded language) provides the words/lexical items
What is a matched guise test*
• A person is bilingual in both X & Y, he/she is judged when speaking X vs. Y while the listener doesn’t know they are the same person
-reveals social stereotypes about these languages
What was lambert’s Study
- Studied Perception of bilingual canadians by English canadians
RESULTS: - EC males viewed Female french speakers as more intelligent, confident, courageous, sincere
- EC females viewed Males speaking in English as taller, likeable, affectionate, greater sense of humour
What is accommodation?
• Speakers try to accommodate to the expectations of others
• May be deliberate of unconscious
• Almost always a sign of solidarity
- reducing differences (u like them), increasing differences (don’t like them)
divergent accommodation
• Increase differences
ex. recreolization
convergent accommodation
• Decrease differences
ex. decreolization
What is the Cost-benefit relationship
we give up something because we want something in return
Why can accommodation be bad?
theoretically if every speaker accommodates to the more powerful group, their variety would die
