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PSY A01 > Chapter 4 > Flashcards

Chapter 4 Flashcards

The Biological Mind: The Physical Basis of Behaviour

1
Q

action potential

A

the electrical signal arising in a neuron’s axon

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2
Q

agonists

A

drugs that enhance the actions of neurotransmitters

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3
Q

location and function of the amygdala

A

LOCATION:
a subcortical structure deeply embedded in the temporal lobe

FUNCTIONS:
* receives sensory information and produces emotional and motivational output
* identifies, remembers, and responds to fear and aggression

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4
Q

antagonists

A

drugs that inhibit the actions of neurotransmitters

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5
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

the division of the PNS that controls tissues other than the skeletal muscle (glands, organs, and smooth muscles) without conscious direction

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6
Q

axons

A

the branch of a neuron that is usually responsible for transmitting information to other neurons

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7
Q

function and composition of the basal ganglia

A

FUNCTION:
a subcortical structure involved with voluntary movement; contributes to OCD and ADHD

COMPOSITION:
* caudate
* putamen
* globus pallidus
* nucleus accumbens

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8
Q

brainstem

A

the part of the brain containing the midbrain, pons, and medulla

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9
Q

cell body

A

the large, central mass of a neuron, containing the nucleus

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10
Q

central nervous system (CNS)

A

the brain and spinal cord

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11
Q

functions of the cerebellum

A

a brainstem structure involved with…
* maintaining balance and motor coordination
* complex cognitive processing

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12
Q

cerebral cortex

A

the thin layer of neurons covering the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres

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13
Q

location and functions of the cingulate cortex

A

LOCATION:
a subcortical structure found above the corpus callosum; the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is the forward 2/3, and the posterior cingulate cortex is the rear 1/3

ACC FUNCTION:
* autonomic nervous system control
* decision making
* emotion
* anticipation of reward
* empathy

PCC FUNCTION:
participates in memory and visual processing

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14
Q

corpus callosum

A

a wide band of nerve fibres connecting the right and left cerebral hemispheres

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15
Q

dendrites

A

a branch from the neural cell body that usually receives input from other neurons

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16
Q

function of the endocrine system

A

a collection of glands that release hormones into the blood involved with arousal, metabolism, growth, and sex

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17
Q

function of the enteric nervous system

A
  • communicates with the endocrine system to ensure the release of chemicals essential to digestion
  • involved with gastrointestinal pain, hunger, and fullness
  • gives rise to a “gut feeling”
  • the source of 95% of the body’s serotonin
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18
Q

executive functions

A

the set of basic and higher-level cognitive processes that enable self-regulation and cognitive control of behaviour (e.g. planning, decision-making, and goal pursuit)

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19
Q

parts of the frontal lobe

A
  • primary motor cortex: provides the highest level of voluntary control over movement
  • Broca’s area: participates in the production of speech
  • prefrontal cortex: involved with the planning of behaviour, attention, and judgment
  • orbitofrontal cortex: a part of the prefrontal cortex located right behind the eyes that participates in impulse control
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20
Q

glia

A

nervous system cells that perform a variety of support functions, including formation of the blood-brain barrier and myelin

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21
Q

shape and function of the hippocampus

A

SHAPE:
a subcortical structure that received its name, due to its seahorse-like shape (hippokampus)

FUNCTION:
essential to the formation of long-term memories

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22
Q

functions of the hypothalamus

A

a subcortical structure that…
* is involved with motivation and homeostasis (regulation of body functions)
* contributes to the 4F behaviours: feeding, fleeing, fighting, and fornication

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23
Q

location and function of the medulla oblongata

A

LOCATION:
the brainstem structure that lies just above the spinal cord

FUNCTION:
manages life-sustaining functions (i.e. heart rate, breathing, blood pressure)

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24
Q

location and function of the midbrain

A

LOCATION:
the part of the brainstem that lies between the pons and the cerebral hemispheres

FUNCTION:
involved in sensory reflexes, movement, and pain

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25
Q

myelin

A

the insulating material covering some axons

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26
Q

neurogenesis

A

the generation of new neurons

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27
Q

neurons

A

a cell of the nervous system that is specialized to send and receive neural messages

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28
Q

neuroplasticity

A

the ability of neurons to change in structure and function throughout the life span

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29
Q

neurotransmitters

A

a chemical messenger that communicates across a synpase

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30
Q

location and function of the nucleus accumbens

A

LOCATION:
a structure of the nucleus accumbens between the caudate and putamen

FUNCTION:
participates in reward and pleasure/addiction (e.g. eating, having sex, using drugs, gambling)

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31
Q

parts of the occipital lobe

A
  • primary visual cortex: begins the process of interpreting input from the eyes by responding to basic information about an image (e.g. borders, shading, colour, movement)
  • pathway connecting the occipital and temporal lobes: allows you to recognize objects you see
  • pathway connecting the occipital and parietal lobes: allows you to process the movement of objects
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32
Q

the relationship between the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems

A

When stressed, the sympathetic nervous system provides the muscles with the resources needed for a fight-or-flight reaction; our hearts race, we breathe faster, our faces become pale, our palms sweat, and our pupils dilate.

When relaxed, the parasympathetic nervous system allows us to store nutrients, repair our bodies, and return the activities of internal organs to baseline levels; our hearts slow down, we breathe slower, our faces colour, and our pupils constrict.

During sexual activity, these two divisions cooperate.

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33
Q

major part of the parietal lobe

A
  • primary somatosensory cortex: helps us localize touch, pain, skin temperature, and body position
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34
Q

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

A

the nerves exiting the CNS that carry sensory and motor information to and from the rest of the body

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35
Q

location and functions of the pons

A

LOCATION:
a brainstem structure located between the medulla and the midbrain

FUNCTIONS:
* serves as a bridge between the higher and lower portions of the brain
* involved with the management of sleep, arousal, and facial expressions

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36
Q

prefrontal cortex

A

the most forward part of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex

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37
Q

receptors

A

special channels in the membrane of a neuron that interacts with neurotransmitters released by other neurons

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38
Q

resting potential

A

the measure of the electrical charge across a neural membrane when the neuron is not processing information

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39
Q

location and functions of the reticular formation

A

LOCATION:
a collection of structures located along the midline of the brainstem

FUNCTIONS:
participates in the management of levels of arousal; has two settings (fast and slow)

when cells fire quickly, we show signs of awakeness, but when cells fire slowly (or are damaged), we show signs of deep sleep or unconsciousness

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40
Q

reuptake

A

a process in which molecules of neurotransmitter in the synaptic gap are returned to the axon terminal from which they were released

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41
Q

somatic nervous system

A

the part of the PNS that brings sensory information to the central nervous system and transmits commands to the muscles

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42
Q

spinal cord

A

a long cylinder of neural tissue extending from the medulla of the brain down to the middle of the back; part of the CNS

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43
Q

synapse

A

a point of communication between two neurons

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44
Q

parts of the temporal lobe

A
  • primary auditory cortex: allows us to process incoming sounds
  • Wernicke’s area: involved in comprehension of speech; if damaged, patients can speak fluently, but will make no sense
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45
Q

location and functions of the thalamus

A

LOCATION:
a subcortical structure almost at the centre of the brain

FUNCTIONS:
involved with the processing of sensory information, memory, and states of consciousness; coordinates the activity of cortical neurons, “tuning out” the outside world, making it difficult to awaken

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46
Q

the philosophy that René Descartes proposed

A

dualism

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47
Q

dualism

A

suggests that our mind is somehow different and separate from our physical being

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48
Q

another name for biological psychology

A

behavioural neuroscience

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49
Q

two things that biological changes influence

A

behaviour and cognition

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50
Q

a historical mistake in phrenology, toward the end of the 18th century

A

Phrenologists proposed that the pattern of bumps on an individual’s skull correlated with that person’s personality traits and abilities, and that the brain worked like a muscle; getting larger through every use.

Frequently used areas of the brain would grow so much that the skull above these areas would bulge.

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51
Q

anatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal’s (1852-1934) conclusion of the nervous system

A

Using Camillo Golgi’s microscopic stain, Cajal concluded that the nervous system was made up of separate cells (“the Neuron Doctrine”).

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52
Q

neurologist John Hughlings Jackson’s (1835-1911) conclusion of the nervous system

A

Using observations of his patients with seizure disorders, Jackson proposed that the nervous system is organized as heirarchy; progressively more complicated behaviours were managed by more recently evolved and complex structures.

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53
Q

two types of neuroscientific methods

A
  • spatial resolution: providing information about the specific location of activity the brain
  • temporal resolution: providing information about the specific timing of activity in the brain
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54
Q

histology

A

microscopic examination of the nervous system

“How does the structure of nervous system cells correlate with behaviour?”

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55
Q

skin conductance response (galvanic skin response)

A

measurement of electricity passed between two surface electrodes placed on the skin of the hand or finger

“What is a person’s state of arousal?”

56
Q

electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

measurement of the brain’s electrical activity using electrodes placed on the scalp

“What is a person’s state of arousal?”

57
Q

event-related potential (ERP)

A

measurement formed by averaging EEG responses to a stimulus (e.g. light, sound)

“Did the person perceive the stimulus?”

58
Q

single cell recording

A

measurement of a single neuron’s activity obtained through a surgically implanted electrode

“What types of stimulation make this neuron respond?”

59
Q

magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A

recording of the tiny amounts of magnetic output of the brain

“What parts of the brain react to this stimulus?”

60
Q

positron emission tomography (PET)

A

measurement that uses the accumulation of radioactively tagged glucose or oxygen to identify activity levels in parts of the brain

“What parts of the brain are active during a particular task?”

61
Q

functional magnetic resonance imagining (fMRI)

A

identification of active parts of the brain using magnetism to track the flow of oxygen

“What parts of the brain are active during a particular task?”

62
Q

electrical stimulation

A

application of small amounts of electricity through a surgically implanted electrode

“What behaviours occur if we stimulate this part of the brain?”

63
Q

optogenetics

A

genetically inserted light-sensitive proteins allow cells in the brain to be “turned on” with light

“Which types of cells are active during particular behaviours?”

64
Q

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

A

application of magnetic fields to the brain through an instrument held near the scalp

“What behavioural changes occur when magnetism is applied to the brain?”

65
Q

lesions

A

naturally occurring or deliberate damage to the brain

“What behavioural changes are correlated with brain damage?”

66
Q

the two major components of the nervous system

A

the central and the peripheral nervous systems

67
Q

Nerves branch outward from the CNS to all areas of the body - the lungs, heart, and other organs; the eyes and ears; and the arms, legs, fingers, and toes. As soon as this occurs, the nerve is considered part of the…

A

peripheral nervous system

68
Q

Nerves of the CNS are encased in…

A

bone

69
Q

number of neurons within a human brain

A

about 100 billion neurons

70
Q

two steps of neural communication

A
  1. A single neuron generates an electrical signal known as an action potential. This signal travels the length of the axon from its junction with the cell body to its terminal.
  2. The arrival of an action potential at the axon terminal of the first neuron signals the release of chemical messenger, which float across the extracellular fluid separating the two neurons. These chemicals influence the likelihood that the second neuron will respond with its own action potential, sending the message along.
71
Q

another name for the nervous system

A

the body’s electrochemical communication system

72
Q

characteristics of a neuron

A
  • a nucleus, within a cell body
  • an outer membrane that surrons the neuron and forms a barrier between the extracellular and intracellular fluids
73
Q

what takes place in the cell body

A

most housekeeping tasks of the cell (e.g. the translation of genetic codes into the manufacture of proteins)

74
Q

composition of the neural membrane

A
  • insoluble fatty materials
  • pores within the membrane that act as channels
75
Q

two types of branches that extend from a neuron’s cell body

A
  • axons carry information
  • dendrites receive information
76
Q

number of dendrites and axons in a single neuron

A

many dendrites, but only one axon

77
Q

white matter

A

pathways formed by large bundles of nerve fibres or axons

78
Q

grey matter

A

areas with a high density of cell bodies or dendrites

79
Q

two possible functions of glia

A
  • some provide a structural matrix for neurons, ensuring they stay in place
  • some are mobile, allowing them to move to a location where neurons have been damaged to clean up debris
80
Q

the blood-brain barrier

A

glia form tight connections with the blood vessels in the nervous system, preventing many toxins from entering the brain

81
Q

In vertebrates such as humans, glia wrap around some axons, forming an important layer of insulation called…

A

myelin

82
Q

the effect of unmyelinated axons

A

When you hurt yourself, the fast, sharp “ouch” message is carried to the brain by myelinated axons, but the dull, achy message that lasts a lot longer is carried by unmyelinated axons.

83
Q

types of myelin formed by glia

A
  • myelin in the CNS form scar tissue, inhibiting repair to the damaged nerves
  • myelin in the PNS do not form scar tissue, and allow damaged axons to rerow
84
Q

damage in the CNS vs. damage in the PNS

A
  • CNS damage is permanent due to the growth of scar tissue when met with trauma
  • PNS damage is temporary due to the lack of scar tissue
85
Q

the duration of myelin growth

A

myelin begins to grow before birth, but isn’t completed until early adulthood (about 25 years old)

86
Q

the last area of the nervous system to be myelinated

A

the prefronntal cortex

87
Q

the effect of late myelination within the prefrontal cortex

A

The prefrontal cortex is involved with judgment and morality. Until myelin in this area is mature, these neurons don’t work as efficiently, which is one of the possible reasons teenagers and adults sometimes make different decisions.

88
Q

When a neuron isn’t processing information it is…

A

at rest

89
Q

At rest, relative to its exterior, the interior of the neutron is…

A

negatively charged

90
Q

the two possible processes of which neurons undergo when responding to incoming chemical signals

A

depolarization (moving closer together) or hyperpolarization (moving farther apart)

91
Q

the effect of depolarization on the electrical charges of the extracellular and intracellular neuronal fluids

A

the charges decrease

92
Q

the effect of hyperpolarization on the electrical charges of the extracellular and intracellular neuronal fluids

A

the charges increase

93
Q

threshold

A

the point at which an effect - the action potential - is initated and inevitable

94
Q

the four stages of action potential

A
  1. sodium channels open; sodium rushes in (depolarization)
  2. potassium channels open; potassium rushes out
  3. sodium channels close (hyperpolarization)
  4. potassium channels close
95
Q

where the steps of action potentials take place

A
  1. polarization takes place in the small segment of the axon connected to the cell body
  2. propagation takes place along the length of the axon to the axon terminal
96
Q

propagation

A

the duplication of the electrical signal down to the axon terminal, where it initiates the release of chemical messengers

97
Q

differences in propogation of myelinated and unmyelinated axons

A
  • action potentials in unmyelinated axons occur step by step, section by section, down the entire length of the axon
  • action potentials in myelinated axons are formed only at nodes of Ranvier; skipping the sections covered by myelin
98
Q

nodes of Ranvier

A

sections of the axon membrane between adjacent segments of myelin

99
Q

important neurotransmitters

A
  • acetylcholine (ACh)
  • epinephrine (adrenalin)
  • norepinephrine (noradrenalin)
  • dopamine
  • serotonin
  • glutamate
  • GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
  • endorphins (endogenous morphine)
100
Q

acetylcholine

A

a neurotransmitter found at the neuromuscular junction, and influences movement, learning, memory, and autonomic nervous system function

101
Q

the effects of abnormalities in acetylcholine activity

A
  • paralysis and death
  • Alzheimer’s disease
102
Q

norepinephrine

A

a neurotransmitter that influences arousal, vigilance, and sympathetic nervous system function

103
Q

the effects of abnormalities in norepinephrine activity

A
  • bipolar disorder
  • PTSD
104
Q

dopamine

A

a neurotransmitter that influences movement, planning, and reward

when we engage engage in behaviours that promote survival and successful reproduction (e.g. eating, having sex), or take drugs that produce addiction (e.g. cocaine, meth), there is increased activity in dopamine circuits

105
Q

the effects of abnormalities in dopamine activity

A
  • Parkinson’s disease
  • schizophrenia
  • ADHD
106
Q

serotonin

A

a neurotransmitter that regulates sleep, appetite, mood, and aggression; all these behaviours are tightly linked (e.g. a depressed mood results in appetite and sleep changes)

107
Q

endorphins

A

a neurotransmitter that modifies our natural response to pain; opioid drugs (e.g. morphine, heroin) produce pain-releaving effects my mimicking the action of endorphins

108
Q

six steps of chemical signalling

A
  1. action potential reaches axon terminal
  2. synaptic vesicles are released from their protein anchors
  3. synaptic vesicles fuse with the axon membrane at release sites
  4. vesicles open, releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft
  5. reuptake; the vesicle material is recycled
  6. vesicles are refilled with neurotransmitter
109
Q

the relationship between receptors and neurotransmitters

A

they work like locks and keys; only a neurotransmitter with the right shape (key) can bind to the particular receptor (lock)

110
Q

two possible effects of the interaction between neurotransmitters and receptors

A
  • excitatory effect: the receiving neuron is depolarized, increasing the likelihood that it will reach threshold and initiate an action potential
  • inhibitory effect: the receiving nuron is hyperpolarized, reducing the likelihood that it will reach threshold and initiate an action potential
111
Q

two different types of drugs that influence the actions of neurotransmitters

A

agonists and antagonists

112
Q

summation

A

the addition of all incoming action potentials

113
Q

where adult neurogenesis occurs

A

stem cells in the the hippocampus and the olfactory bulb

114
Q

long-term potentiation

A

a process that enhances communication between two neurons, and plays an important role in learning and memory

115
Q

meningitis

A

inflammation of the meninges covering the brain and the spinal cord

116
Q

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

A

a clear, plasma-like fluid that flows from ventricles and cushions the CNS

117
Q

spinal nerves

A

31 pairs of nerves that exit between the bones of the vertebrae to bring sensory information back to the CNS and carry motor commands to muscles

118
Q

interneurons

A

form bridges between sensory and motor neurons

119
Q

function of the cerebellum

A
  • maintaining balance and motor coordination
  • complex cognitive processing
120
Q

three structures of the brainstem

A
  • medulla
  • pons
  • midbrain
121
Q

the gateway to the cortex

A

sensory systems → thalamus → cerebral cortex

122
Q

subcortical structures

A

a collection of structures that lie below the cerebral cortex, including the…
* thalamus
* basal ganglia
* hypothalamus
* hippocampus
* cingulate cortex
* amygdala

123
Q

the four lobes of the cerebral cortex

A
  • frontal lobe: responsible for some of the most complex cognitive processes
  • parietal lobe: processes sensory information
  • occipatal lobe: processes visual information
  • temporal lobe: processes auditory information
124
Q

the three categories of functions performed by different areas of the cerebral cortex

A

sensory, motor, and association

125
Q

mirror neurons

A

some of the same neurons fire when an animal does an action, or sees the action being done

126
Q

lateralization

A

a function in either the right or the left cerebral hemisphere

127
Q

examples of lateralized processes

A
  • lateralization in the somatosensory and volunary motor systems depicts that movement and sensations on the right side of the body are processed by the left hemisphere, and vice versa

PROCESSES LATERALIZED TO THE LEFT HEMISPHERE:
* language
* positive emotions
* mathematical computation and logical reasoning

PROCESSES LATERALIZED TO THE RIGHT HEMISPHERE
* negative emotions
* music functions, spatial information, intuition, and the visual arts are lateralized to the right hemisphere

128
Q

advantages of lateralization

A
  • multitasking
  • survival advantages
  • social cohesion
129
Q

cranial nerves

A

12 pairs of nerves that carry sensory and motor information from the brain to the head, neck, and some internal organs

130
Q

the three divisions of the autonomic nervous system

A
  • sympathetic nervous system: prepares the body for situations regarding energy
  • parasympathetic nervous system: directs the storage of energy
  • enteric nervous system: a “second brain” that communicates with the endocrine system
131
Q

important glands of the endocrine system

A
  • pineal gland
  • pituitary gland (“master gland”)
  • thyroid gland
  • adrenal glands
  • islets of Langerhands
  • ovaries and testes
132
Q

function of the pineal gland

A

an endocrine gland that releases melatonin, involved in sleep-wake cycles; it is normally released in the early evening, and breaks down in the presence of light

133
Q

functions of the pituitary gland

A

the posterior pituitary secretes…
* oxytocin - involved in breastfeeding - and vasopressin - involved in maintenance of fluid levels - but are also implicated in cooperation, trust, memory for social information, emotion recognition, and resilience during stress
* human growth hormone (HGH) stimulates growth and regeneration

the anterior pituitary secretes hormones that control the production and release of sex hormones by the ovaries and the testes

134
Q

location and function of the thyroid gland

A

LOCATION:
just below the larynx

FUNCTION
raises or lowers metabolic rate

135
Q

function of the adrenal glands

A

when activated by pituitary hormones in stressful moments, adrenal glands release other hormones (e.g. cortisol) that travel throughout the body and the brain to provide a general wake-up message

136
Q

location and function of the islets of Langerhans

A

LOCATION:
the pancreas

FUNCTION:
produces insulin, along with other hormones essential to digestion

PSY A01 (8 decks)

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