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PSY A01 > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

The Measure of Mind: Methods of Psychology

1
Q

case study

A

an in-depth analysis of the behaviour of one person or a small number of people

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2
Q

confirmation bias

A

the tendency to notice and remember instances that support your beliefs more than instances that contradict them

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3
Q

confounding variables

A

variables that are irrelevant to the hypothesis being tested, but can alter a researcher’s conclusions

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4
Q

constructs

A

a hypothetical internal attribute that cannot be directly observed, but is useful for describing and explaining behaviour

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5
Q

control group

A

a group that experiences all experimental procedures, with the exception of exposure to the independent variable

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6
Q

correlations

A

a measure of the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables

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7
Q

critical thinking

A

the ability to think clearly, rationally, and independently

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8
Q

cross-sectional study

A

an experimental design for assessing age-related changes in which data are obtained simultaneously from people of differing ages

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9
Q

dependent variable

A

a measure that demonstrates the effects of an independent variable; the “result” part of a hypothesis

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10
Q

descriptive methods

A

research methods designed for making careful, systematic observations

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11
Q

descriptive statistics

A

statistical methods that organize data into meaningful patterns and summaries, such as finding the average value

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12
Q

double-blind procedure

A

a research design that controls for placebo effects in which neither the participant nor the experimenter observing the participant know whether the participant was given an active substance/treatment, or placebo

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13
Q

experiment

A

a research method that tests hypotheses and allows researchers to make conclusions about causality

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14
Q

experimental groups

A

a group of participants who are exposed to the independent variable

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15
Q

field experiments

A

an experiment conducted outside of a laboratory setting

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16
Q

focus groups

A

a small, often deliberately chosen, group of people who engage in a structured discussion on a topic

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17
Q

generalizations

A

to extend conclusions to larger populations outside your research sample

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18
Q

hypothesis

A

a proposed explanation for a situation, usually taking the form, “If A happens, then B will be the result.”

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19
Q

independent variable

A

an experimental variable controlled and manipulated by the experimenter

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20
Q

inferential statistics

A

statistical methods that allow experimenters to extend conclusions from samples to larger populations

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21
Q

informed consent

A

permission obtained from a research participant after the risks and benefits of an experimental procedure have been thoroughly explained

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22
Q

interview

A

an interaction in which a participant is asked a predetermined set of questions by the researcher and are allowed to provide any sort of response they wish

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23
Q

longitudinal study

A

an experimental design for assessing age-related changes in which data are obtained from the same individuals at intervals over a long period of time

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24
Q

mean

A

the numerical average of a set of scores

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25
Q

measure

A

a method for describing a variable’s quantity

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26
Q

median

A

the halfway mark in a set of data, with half of the scores above it and half below

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27
Q

meta-analysis

A

a statistical analysis of many previous experiments on a single topic

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28
Q

mixed longitudinal design

A

a method for assessing age-related changes that combines the cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches by observing a cross-section of participants over a shorter period than is used typically in longitudinal studies

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29
Q

mode

A

the most frequently occurring score in a set of date

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30
Q

naturalistic observation

A

an in-depth study of a phenomenon in its natural setting

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31
Q

normal distribution

A

a symmetrical probability function

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32
Q

null hypothesis

A

a hypothesis stating the default position; that there is no real difference between two measures

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33
Q

objectivity

A

the practice of basing conclusions on facts, without the influence of personal emotion and bias

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34
Q

operationalization

A

defining constructs in ways that allow them to be measured

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35
Q

peer review

A

the process of having other experts examine research prior to its publication

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36
Q

placebo

A

an inactive substance or treatment that cannot be distinguished from a real, active substance or treatment

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37
Q

population

A

the entire group from which a sample is taken

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38
Q

publication bias

A

the possibility that published studies are not representative of all work done on a particular phenomenon

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39
Q

random assignment

A

the procedure in which each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group in an experiment

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40
Q

reliability

A

the consistency of a measure

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41
Q

replication

A

repeating an experiment and producing the same results

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42
Q

sample

A

a subset of a population being studied

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43
Q

science

A

a method for learning about reality through systematic observation and experimentation

44
Q

standard deviation

A

a measure of how tightly clustered around the mean a group of scores is

45
Q

statistical significance

A

a standard for deciding whether an observed result is because of chance

46
Q

survey

A

a descriptive method in which participants are asked the same questions

47
Q

theory

A

a set of facts and relationships between facts that can explain and predict related phenomena

48
Q

third variable

A

a variable that is responsible for a correlation observed between two other variables of interest

49
Q

validity

A

a quality of a measure that leads to correct conclusions (i.e. the measure evaluates the concept that it was designed to do)

50
Q

variable

A

a factor that has a range of values

51
Q

faith

A

belief that does not depend on logical proof or evidence

52
Q

the opposite of faith

A

science

53
Q

the Latin word that “science” comes from

A

“scientia” meaning “knowledge”

54
Q

subjectivity

A

conclusions reflect personal points of view

55
Q

the Mandela effect

A

collective misremembering (e.g. the Monopoly man doesn’t have a monocle)

56
Q

science vs. everyday observations

A

science:
* objective
* systematic
* relies on observable, objective, repeatable evidence

everyday observations
* subjective
* hit or miss (based on what is happening around us)
* ignores evidence

57
Q

Critical thinkers can…

A
  • follow logical arguments
  • identify mistakes in reasoning
  • prioritize ideas according to their importance
  • apply logic to personal attitudes, beliefs, and values
58
Q

Failing to critically think lead to…

A
  • bad decision-making
  • gullible voting
  • patient deaths
  • financial mismanagement
  • academic failure
59
Q

five critical thinking questions to evaluating new information in everyday life

A
  • What am I being asked to believe or accept?
  • What evidence supports this position?
  • Are there other ways that this evidence could be interpreted?
  • What other evidence would I need to evaluate these alternatives?
  • What are the most reasonable conclusions?
60
Q

the never-ending process of science

A
  1. research question
  2. hypothesis/prediction
  3. method
  4. results
  5. conclusion/implications
61
Q

how to develop and test a theory

A
  1. theoretical hypothesis
  2. testable prediction
  3. systematic observation
62
Q

how to prove that a hypothesis is true

A

Hypotheses cannot be “proven” true, as new technology that isn’t available might show that the hypothesis is false.

All we can do is show when a hypothesis is false, and then modify or discard it.

63
Q

New research can only be added to the existing body of scientific knowledge after…

A

Other experts conclude that the new research is important, accurate, and explained thoroughly (peer review)

64
Q

operationalizations of anxiety

A
  • the examination of observable behaviours (e.g. fidgeting)
  • a self-report measure (e.g. “How anxious do you feel on a scale of 1-10?”)
65
Q

examples of descriptive methods

A
  • case studies
  • naturalistic observations
  • surveys
  • focus groups
  • interviews
66
Q

when to use descriptive methods

A
  • the illumination of associations between variables
  • the establishment of prevalence rates
  • the creation and testing of hypotheses
67
Q

when psychologists use case studies

A

when large number of participants are unavailable, or when a particular participant possesses unique characteristics

68
Q

benefits of naturalistic observation

A
  • larger group or people used
  • advantage of observing individuals in their natural, everyday circumstances
69
Q

drawbacks to naturalistic observation

A
  • if you know you’re being watched, you can act differently
  • if you don’t know you’re being watched, this raises ethical issues
70
Q

requirement of surveys

A

large samples that are representative of the population

71
Q

drawback to surveys

A

when people believe that their true attitudes and behaviours will not be viewed favourably by others, they are more likely to lie

72
Q

difference between surveys, and focus groups and interviews

A

surveys contrain participants to some preselected choice of response options

73
Q

three types of correlation

A
  • positive correlation: high levels of one variable are associated with high levels of the other variable (e.g. height and weight)
  • negative correlation: high values of one variable are associated with low levels of the other variable (e.g. alcohol consumption and GPAs)
  • zero correlation: the two variables have no systematic relationship with each other
74
Q

when to use correlational methods

A

correlations could simply be more approriate than other research methods

e.g. it’s unethical to expose young men and women to different number of stressful life events, but you could ask the individuals to report stressful life events they’ve experienced, which could be correlated to various mental health outcomes

75
Q

features of a good experimental design

A
  • random assignment of participants to groups
  • appropriate control groups
  • control of situational variables
  • independent and dependent variables
76
Q

Researchers begin designing experiments with a…

A

hypothesis in mind

77
Q

drawbacks to experiments

A
  • can be artificial (highly controlled setting) or unethical (if made more realistic)
  • independent and dependent variables have to be defined and implimented concretely; they must be operationalized
78
Q

drawbacks to meta-analyses

A
  • is only as good as the studies on which it is based
  • published studies can lead to publication bias
  • “file drawer” problems can exists: journals can publish studies that demonstrate significant effects of an indepent variable (e.g. video game violence) on a dependent variable (e.g. aggression) than studies that show no significant effects
79
Q

the importance of multiple perspectives

A

converging evidence from descriptive, correlational, and experimental research provides us with confidence in our conclusions

80
Q

techniques to assessing normal behaviours associated with age

A
  • cross-sectional study
  • longitudinal study
  • mixed longitudinal designs
81
Q

drawback to cross-sectional studies

A

cohort effects: generational effects of having been born at a particular point in history that could mask the cross-sectional results

82
Q

drawbacks to longitudinal studies

A
  • expensive
  • time-consuming
83
Q

benefits to mixed longitudinal design

A
  • avoids some of the cohort effects of cross-sectional studies
  • faster and less expensive that longitudinal studies
84
Q

two standards that any measure must meet

A

reliability and validity

85
Q

types of reliability

A
  • test-retest: consistency in numerous attempts
  • interrater: consistency in the interpretation of a measure across different observers
  • inter-method: the positive correlation of several approaches to measure a feature in an individual
  • internal consistency: measures within a single test that positively correlate with one another
86
Q

method to testing validity

A

see whether a measure correlates with other existing, established measures of the same concept

87
Q

A useful starting place for descriptive statistics are…

A

frequency distributions

88
Q

the three “averages”

A

mean, median, and mode

89
Q

standard deviation size difference

A
  • a smaller standard deviation suggests that scores are found near the mean
  • a larger standard deviation suggests that scores are found further from the mean
90
Q

features of the ideal normal curve

A
  • sym,etrical
  • shape indicates that most scores occur near the mean
91
Q

We can illustrate the relationship between two variables with a…

A

scatterplot

92
Q

psychology accepts these odds than an observed results is due to chance as an acceptable standard for statistical signifcance

A

5/100 (5%)

93
Q

examples of inferential statistics

A
  • statistical testing
  • estimation
94
Q

drawback to significance testing

A

requires a “yes or no” response; either the null hypothesis is rejected, or not

95
Q

where researchers receiving federal funding seek approval for human participant research

A

research ethics boards (REBs)

96
Q

where researchers receiving federal funding seek approval for animal participant research

A

institutional animal care committees (ACCs)

97
Q

At the core of ethical standards for human research is the idea that participation is…

A

voluntary

98
Q

examples of patients that are unable to provide informed consent

A
  • children (< 18 years old)
  • patients suffering with schizophrenia
  • patients suffering from late-stage Alzheimer’s
99
Q

how to gain informed consent from patients who are unable to provide it

A

legal permission must be obtained from a qualified guardian (e.g. parents for children)

100
Q

requirements for ethical human research

A
  • no coercion; informed consent
  • no irreversible harm done to participants
  • private and confidential
101
Q

privacy

A

the participants’ control over the sharing of their personal information with others

102
Q

confidentiality

A

the participants’ right to have their data revealed to others only with their permission

103
Q

the national peer-review organization responsible for setting, maintaining, and overseeing the implementation of high standards for animal ethics and care in science throughout Canada

A

The Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC)

104
Q

the three most commonly used research animals in Canada

A
  1. mice (31.2%)
  2. birds (27%)
  3. fish (19.1%)
105
Q

the “Three R’s” tenet that guides the use of animal research

A
  • replacement: avoiding or replacing the use of animals in an area of research where they would have otherwise been used
  • reduction: implementing strategies that use fewer animals
  • refinement: modifying animal care or experiment procedures to minimize pain and distress
106
Q

requirements for animal research

A
  • must demonstrate a clear purpose (i.e. benefitting the health of humans or other animals)
  • excellent housing, food, and veterinary care
  • minimizing the pain and suffering of animal research subjects

PSY A01 (8 decks)

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