Chapter 2 Flashcards
The Measure of Mind: Methods of Psychology
case study
a descriptive method in which there is an in-depth analysis of the behaviour of one person or a small number of people
confirmation bias
the tendency to notice and remember instances that support your beliefs more than instances that contradict them
confounding variables
variables that are irrelevant to the hypothesis being tested, but can alter a researcher’s conclusions
constructs
a hypothetical internal attribute that cannot be directly observed, but is useful for describing and explaining behaviour (e.g. anxiety, intelligence)
control group
a group that experiences all experimental procedures, with the exception of exposure to the independent variable
correlations
a measure of the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables
cross-sectional study
an experimental design for assessing age-related changes in which data are obtained simultaneously from people of differing ages
dependent variable
a measure that demonstrates the effects of an independent variable; the “result” part of a hypothesis
descriptive methods
research methods designed for making careful, systematic observations
descriptive statistics
statistical methods that organize data into meaningful patterns and summaries, such as finding the average value
double-blind procedure
a research design that controls for placebo effects in which neither the participant nor the experimenter observing the participant know whether the participant was given an active substance/treatment, or placebo
experiment
a research method that tests hypotheses and allows researchers to make conclusions about causality
experimental groups
a group of participants who are exposed to the independent variable
field experiments
an experiment conducted outside of a laboratory setting
focus groups
a small, often deliberately chosen, group of people who engage in a structured discussion on a topic
statistical generalizations
to extend conclusions to larger populations outside your research sample
hypothesis
a proposed explanation for a situation, usually taking the form, “If A happens, then B will be the result.”
independent variable
an experimental variable controlled and manipulated by the experimenter
inferential statistics
statistical methods that allow experimenters to extend conclusions from samples to larger populations
informed consent
permission obtained from a research participant after the risks and benefits of an experimental procedure have been thoroughly explained
interview
an descriptive method in which a participant is asked a predetermined set of questions by the researcher and are allowed to provide any sort of response they wish
longitudinal study
an experimental design for assessing age-related changes in which data are obtained from the same individuals at intervals over a long period of time
mean
the numerical average of a set of scores
measure
a method for describing a variable’s quantity
median
the halfway mark in a set of data, with half of the scores above it and half below
meta-analysis
a statistical analysis of many previous experiments on a single topic
mixed longitudinal design
a method for assessing age-related changes that combines the cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches by observing a cross-section of participants over a shorter period than is used typically in longitudinal studies
mode
the most frequently occurring score in a set of data
naturalistic observation
a descriptive method in which an in-depth study of a phenomenon is done in its natural setting
normal distribution
a symmetrical probability function
null hypothesis
a hypothesis stating the default position: that there is no real difference between two measures
objectivity
the practice of basing conclusions on facts, without the influence of personal emotion and bias
operationalization
defining constructs in ways that allow them to be measured
peer review
the process of having other experts examine research prior to its publication
placebo
an inactive substance or treatment that cannot be distinguished from a real, active substance or treatment
population
the entire group from which a sample is taken
publication bias
the possibility that published studies are not representative of all work done on a particular phenomenon
participative random assignment
the procedure in which each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group in an experiment
reliability
the consistency of a measure
replication
repeating an experiment and producing the same results
sample
a subset of a population being studied
science
a method for learning about reality through systematic observation and experimentation
statistical significance
a standard for deciding whether an observed result is because of chance
survey
a descriptive method in which participants are asked the same questions
theory
a set of facts and relationships between facts that can explain and predict related phenomena
third variable
a variable that is responsible for a correlation observed between two other variables of interest
validity
a quality of a measure that leads to correct conclusions (i.e. the measure evaluates the concept that it was designed to do)
variable
a factor that has a range of values
faith
belief that does not depend on logical proof or evidence
the opposite of faith
science
the Latin word that “science” comes from
“scientia” meaning “knowledge”
subjectivity
conclusions reflect personal points of view
the Mandela effect
collective misremembering (e.g. the Monopoly man doesn’t have a monocle)
science vs. everyday observations
science:
- objective
- systematic
- relies on observable, objective, repeatable evidence
everyday observations
- subjective
- hit or miss (based on what is happening around us)
- ignores evidence
the five-step never-ending process of science
- research question
- hypothesis/prediction
- method
- results
- conclusion/implications
how to develop and test a theory
- theoretical hypothesis
- testable prediction
- systematic observation
how to prove that a hypothesis is true
Hypotheses cannot be “proven” true, as new technology that isn’t available might show that the hypothesis is false.
All we can do is show when a hypothesis is false, and then modify or discard it.
New research can only be added to the existing body of scientific knowledge after…
other experts have concluded that the new research is important, accurate, and explained thoroughly (peer review)
operationalizations of anxiety
- the examination of observable behaviours (e.g. fidgeting)
- a self-report measure (e.g. “How anxious do you feel on a scale of 1-10?”)
examples of descriptive methods
- case studies
- naturalistic observations
- surveys
- focus groups
- interviews
when to use descriptive methods
- the illumination of associations between variables
- the establishment of prevalence rates
- the creation and testing of hypotheses
when psychologists use case studies
when large number of participants are unavailable, or when a particular participant possesses unique characteristics
benefits of naturalistic observation
- larger group or people used
- advantage of observing individuals in their natural, everyday circumstances
drawbacks to naturalistic observation
- if you know you’re being watched, you can act differently
- if you don’t know you’re being watched, this raises ethical issues
requirement of surveys
large samples that are representative of the population
drawback to surveys
when people believe that their true attitudes and behaviours will not be viewed favourably by others, they are more likely to lie
difference between surveys, and focus groups and interviews
surveys constrain participants to some preselected choice of response options, whereas focus groups and interviews allow free will of responses
three types of correlation
- positive correlation: high levels of one variable are associated with high levels of the other variable (e.g. height and weight)
- negative correlation: high values of one variable are associated with low levels of the other variable (e.g. alcohol consumption and GPAs)
- zero correlation: the two variables have no systematic relationship with each other
when to use correlational methods
correlations could simply be more appropriate than other research methods
e.g. It’s unethical to expose young men and women to different number of stressful life events, but you could ask the individuals to report stressful life events they’ve experienced, which could be correlated to various mental health outcomes.
features of a good experimental design
- random assignment of participants to groups
- appropriate control groups
- control of situational variables
- independent and dependent variables
Researchers begin designing experiments with a __________ in mind.
hypothesis
drawbacks to experiments
- can be artificial (highly controlled setting) or unethical (if made more realistic)
- independent and dependent variables have to be defined and implimented concretely; they must be operationalized
drawbacks to meta-analyses
- are only as good as the studies on which it is based
- published studies can lead to publication bias
- “file drawer” problems can exists: journals can publish studies that demonstrate significant effects of an indepent variable (e.g. video game violence) on a dependent variable (e.g. aggression), than studies that show no significant effects
the importance of multiple perspectives (overlapping of descriptive, correlational, and experimental research)
converging evidence from descriptive, correlational, and experimental research provides us with confidence in our conclusions
three techniques to assessing normal behaviours associated with age
- cross-sectional study
- longitudinal study
- mixed longitudinal design
drawback to cross-sectional studies
Cohort effects are generational effects of having been born at a particular point in history that could mask the cross-sectional results.
drawbacks to longitudinal studies
expensive and time-consuming
benefits to mixed longitudinal design
- avoids some of the cohort effects of cross-sectional studies
- faster and less expensive than longitudinal studies
two standards that any measure must meet
reliability and validity
four types of reliability
- test-retest: consistency in numerous attempts
- interrater: consistency in the interpretation of a measure across different observers
- inter-method: the positive correlation of several approaches to measure a feature in an individual
- internal consistency: measures within a single test that positively correlate with one another
method to testing validity
see whether a measure correlates with other existing, established measures of the same concept
A useful starting place for descriptive statistics are…
frequency distributions
the three “averages”
mean, median, and mode
standard deviation size difference
- a smaller standard deviation suggests that scores are found near the mean
- a larger standard deviation suggests that scores are found further from the mean
features of the ideal normal curve
- symmetrical
- shape indicates that most scores occur near the mean
We can illustrate the relationship between two variables with a…
scatterplot
psychology accepts these odds that observed results is due to chance as an acceptable standard for statistical signifcance
5/100 (5%)
two examples of inferential statistics
- statistical testing
- estimation
drawback to significance testing
requires a “yes or no” response; either the null hypothesis is rejected, or not
where researchers receiving federal funding seek approval for human participant research
research ethics boards (REBs) and the Canadian Psychological Association (CPA)
where researchers receiving federal funding seek approval for animal participant research
institutional animal care committees (ACCs)
At the core of ethical standards for human research is the idea that participation is…
voluntary
examples of patients that are unable to provide informed consent
- children (< 18 years old)
- patients suffering with schizophrenia
- patients suffering from late-stage Alzheimer’s
how to gain informed consent from patients who are unable to provide it
legal permission must be obtained from a qualified guardian (e.g. parents for children)
three requirements for ethical human research
- no coercion; informed consent
- no irreversible harm done to participants
- private and confidential
privacy
the participants’ control over the sharing of their personal information with others
confidentiality
the participants’ right to have their data revealed to others only with their permission
the national peer-review organization responsible for setting, maintaining, and overseeing the implementation of high standards for animal ethics and care in science throughout Canada
The Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC)
the most commonly used research animal in Canada
mice (31.2%)
the “Three R’s” tenet that guides the use of animal research
- replacement: avoiding or replacing the use of animals in an area of research where they would have otherwise been used
- reduction: implementing strategies that use fewer animals
- refinement: modifying animal care or experiment procedures to minimize pain and distress
