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PSY A01 > Chapter 3 > Flashcards

Chapter 3 Flashcards

The Evolving Mind: Nature and Nurture Intertwined

1
Q

adaptation

A

a change because of natural selection

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2
Q

alleles

A

one of several versions of a gene

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3
Q

altruism

A

behaviour on behalf of another that fails to benefit or harms the individual performing it

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4
Q

behavioural genetics

A

the scientific field that attempts to identify and understand links between genetics and behaviour

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5
Q

candidate gene

A

a gene that has a greater impact on a trait of interest than other genes

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6
Q

concordance rates

A

the statistical probability that a trait in one person will be shared by another

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7
Q

dominant

A

a feature of an allele that determines a phenotype in either the homozygous (dominant) or the heterozygous condition

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8
Q

epigenetic

A

the study of gene-environment interactions in the production of phenotypes

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9
Q

evolution

A

descent with modification from a common ancestor

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10
Q

fitness

A

the ability of one genotype to reproduce more successfully relative to other genotypes

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11
Q

gene

A

a small segment of DNA located in a particular place on a chromosome that produces a protein

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12
Q

gene expression

A

the process in which genetic instructions are converted into a feature of a living cell

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13
Q

genetic drift

A

a change in a population’s genes from one generation to the next because of chance or accident

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14
Q

genome-wide association studies (GWAS)

A

a scan of complete sets of DNA from many participants, which is performed to look for variations associated with a particular phenotype, condition, or disease

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15
Q

genotype

A

an individual’s profile of alleles

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16
Q

heritability

A

the statistical likelihood that variations observed in a population are because of genetics

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17
Q

heterozygous

A

having two different alleles for a gene

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18
Q

homozygous

A

having two of the same alleles for a gene

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19
Q

migration

A

movement to a new location

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20
Q

mutation

A

an error that occurs when DNA is replicated

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21
Q

natural selection

A

the process by which survival and reproductive pressures act to change the frequency of alleles in subsequent generations

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22
Q

nature

A

the contributions of heredity (genetic makeup) to our physical structure and behaviours

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23
Q

nurture

A

the contributions of environmental factors and experience to our physical structure and behaviours

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24
Q

phenotype

A

an observable characteristic

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25
Q

recessive

A

a feature of an allele that produces a phenotype only in the homozygous (recessive) condition

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26
Q

reciprocal altruism

A

help that you provide for another person when you expect the person to return the favour in the future

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27
Q

relatedness

A

the probability that two people share the same allele from a common ancestor

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28
Q

sexual selection

A

the development of traits that help an individual compete for mates

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29
Q

the first person to use the phrase “nature vs. nurture”; Darwin’s cousin

A

Francis Galton (1869)

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30
Q

the two types of cells that don’t contain two complete copies of the human genome

A
  • red blood cells
  • germ-line cells (sperm or eggs)
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31
Q

the number of chromosome pairs in a normal human

A

23 chromosomal pairs

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32
Q

the amount of combinations of chromsomes a single human’s eggs or sperm can produce

A

223 (8,388,608)

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33
Q

relatedness of families

A
  • 0.50 with parents
  • 0.50 with siblings
  • 0.25 with nieces or nephews
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34
Q

amount of human chromosome pairs that are perfectly matched

A

22 pairs, excluding the X and Y chromosomes

35
Q

intersex

A

individuals who are born with sex characteristics (genitals, gonads, chromosome patterns) that do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies

36
Q

sex-linked characteristics

A

found only on the X or Y chromosome (e.g. hemophilia - the failure to clot blood - is found only on the X chromosome)

37
Q

If genes are totally responsible for all phenotypical differences among individuals, heratibility is…

A

1.0

38
Q

range of heritability for most human traits

A

0.30-0.60

39
Q

Heritability refers to ___________, never ___________.

A

populations, individuals

40
Q

If the environment is held constant, heritability is…

A

high

41
Q

Researchers question the use of adoption studies for assessing the relative influences of genetics and environment on development due to…

A

the influence of the environment on heritability; adoptive parents rarely represent as much diversity as the group of biological parents whose children they adopt

42
Q

Twin studies are useful in establishing…

A

concordance rates

43
Q

Concordance rates are useful because…

A

they can provide estimates of the heritability of a psychological disorder

44
Q

Humans share 100% of their _____, not _______.

A

genes, alleles

45
Q

how genes encode for behaviours

A

they don’t, they encode for proteins

46
Q

Different phenotypes can result from the same genotype due to…

A

interactions between the organism and its environment

47
Q

Genes can be turned on/off by…

A
  • internal signals (hormones, neurochemicals)
  • external signals (diet, toxins)
48
Q

the stage of life that experiences the highest rate of epigenetic change

A

fetus

49
Q

factors known to produce epigenetic change

A
  • nutrition
  • disease-causing organisms
  • drugs
  • stress
  • environmental toxins
50
Q

four processes that produce lasting (but reversible) changes in gene expression

A
  • RNA interference
  • RNA editing
  • histone modification
  • DNA methylation
51
Q

histones

A

protein structures around which your DNA is wound

52
Q

the effect of histone modification

A

the expression of nearby segments of DNA can become more or less likely

53
Q

DNA methylation

A

the addition of a methyl group to a DNA molecule

54
Q

the effect of DNA methylation

A

genes turn off

55
Q

three psychological disorders that hundreds of separate genes (or DNA methylation and unusual histone modifications) appear to be linked to

A
  • schizophrenia
  • autism spectrum disorder
  • bipolar disorder
56
Q

the combination of these two things provide scientists with powerful hypotheses about the progression of species over time

A

Mendelian genetics and Darwinian evolution

57
Q

four evolutionary processes

A
  • mutation
  • migration
  • genetic drift
  • natural selection
58
Q

number of mutations in an average human baby

A

about 130 new mutations

59
Q

Natural selection favours the organism with the highest degree of…

A

fitness

60
Q

this describes the interaction between characteristics and the environment in which they exist

A

fitness

61
Q

forms of adaptations

A

behaviours or anatomical features

62
Q

how adaptations are passed on

A

any adaptation that is good enough to contribute to the fitness of an organism will carry forward into future generations

63
Q

Adaptations are compromises between…

A

costs and benefits

64
Q

hominin

A

species that walk on two feet, have large brains, and are assumed to be related to modern humans

65
Q

the evolution of brain size within hominins

A
  1. 400 cm3 in australopithecines
  2. 700 cm3 in Homo erectus
  3. 1,400 cm3 in Homo sapiens
66
Q

Certain “hotspots” within the cerebral cortex act as…

A

communication hubs; they play a central role in supramodal cognition (the ability to integrate information from across the brain in a flexible, task-dependent manner)

67
Q

four creatures with large brains and considerable intelligence

A
  • hominins
  • primates
  • elephants
  • whales
68
Q

three ecological challenges faced by hominins

A
  • finding food
  • avoiding predators
  • navigating through territories
69
Q

the major factor distinguishing human intelligence from intelligence of other species

A

the richness and complexity of the social behaviour supported by the human brain

70
Q

the leading factor to the evolution of the human brain

A

social complexity; the ability to:

  • distinguishing friend and foe
  • imitating the behaviour of others
  • using language to communicate
  • recognizing and anticipating the emotions, thoughts, and behaviours if others
  • maintaing relationships
  • cooperating with others
71
Q

the evolutionary psychology perspective towards the evolution of behaviour

A

current behaviour exists because it provides some advantage in survival and reproduction

72
Q

the psychological approach of which evolutionary psychology was descended

A

functionalism

73
Q

two benefits of belonging to a social group

A

protection and assistance

74
Q

two drawbacks to being social

A

competition for food and mates, and exposure to contagious illnesses

75
Q

four types of social interactions

A
  • cooperative: two individuals help one another
  • selfish: one individual fends for self
  • spiteful: both individuals lose
  • altruistic: one individual self-sacrifices to benefit the other
76
Q

why altruism proves evolution

A

Despite altruism resulting in the destruction of the individual, sacrifices to a close blood relative can lead to an increased likelihood that your alleles will be passed along to subsequent generations.

77
Q

females’ investment in children

A
  • bears the most costs of reproduction (i.e. carrying the fetus until burth, nurturing the baby until adulthood)
  • faces sharper limitations on the number of children physically able to produce
  • the children that are produced must be as healthy and well-nurtured as possible, due to the inability to produce many
  • must choose a father who will pass along healthy genes, and also participate in the raising of children
78
Q

males’ investment in children

A
  • lower investment of time and resources in reproduction
  • abandoning your offspring puts their survival at risk
  • genes are less likely to be passed on, if children perish from lack of care or protection
79
Q

the influence of testosterone-linked facial features on women

A

men with facial features correlated with high testosterone (i.e. strong brow ridge, square chin) are viewed as less likely to participate in childbearing, than men with facial features correlated with lower testosterone

80
Q

the two ways in which sexual selection might occur

A
  • intrasexual selection: members of one sex compete with one another for access to the other sex (e.g. male deer engage in fights to determine which males are allowed to mate)
  • intersexual selection: characteristics of one sex that attract the other might become sexaully selected (e.g. a male peacock’s tail attracts mates)
81
Q

two human traits that evolutionary psychologists believe might have been subjected to sexual selection

A

humour and vocabulary

82
Q

a human trait that does not attract females

A

taking unnecessary risks

83
Q

culture

A

socially transmitted knowledge, practices, values, and goals that are shared by groups of people

84
Q

what might have been the origin of patriarchal systems, in which men maintained control of resources and inheritances follow the male line

A

agriculture

PSY A01 (8 decks)

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